Writing in AP Style

All content on UAMS websites must use AP Style. Included below are commonly-used entries from the AP Stylebook. Also included are UAMS-specific decisions on style to supplement or entries in the AP Stylebook.

If you have questions about specific styles not covered here, reach out to UAMS Web Services to check the AP Stylebook or to include a UAMS-specific decision.

Exceptions Are Covered by Webster’s New World College Dictionary

For spelling, style and usage questions not covered by the AP Stylebook or by the UAMS-specific style decisions listed on this page, consult Webster’s New World College Dictionary, Fifth Edition, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Boston and New York, 2016.

A copy of Webster’s New World College Dictionary is available online through a renewable one-hour loan on the Internet Archive after you create a free account.

Use the first spelling listed in Webster’s New World College Dictionary unless a specific exception is listed in the AP Stylebook or in the UAMS-specific style decisions listed on this page.

If Webster’s New World College Dictionary provides different spellings in separate entries (tee shirt and T-shirt, for example), use the spelling that is followed by a full definition (T-shirt).

If Webster’s New World College Dictionary provides definitions under two spellings for the same sense of a word, either use is acceptable.

Webster’s New World College Dictionary is also the first reference for geographic names not covered in the AP Stylebook or in the UAMS-specific style decisions listed on this page.

abbreviations and acronyms

A few universally recognized abbreviations are required in some circumstances. Some others are acceptable, depending on the context. But in general, avoid alphabet soup. Do not use abbreviations or acronyms that the reader would not quickly recognize.

Avoid abbreviations and most acronyms in headlines, except those that are widely recognizable (FBI, EU, US, CIA, IRS, NASA, NATO, COVID, for example.)

An acronym is a word formed from the first letter or letters of a series of words: laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation). An abbreviation is not an acronym.

abbreviations before a name

Abbreviate titles when used before a full name: Dr., Gov., Lt. Gov., Rep., the Rev., Sen. and certain military designations.

abbreviations after a name

Abbreviate junior or senior after an individual’s name. Abbreviate company, corporation, incorporated and limited when used after the name of a corporate entity.

In some cases, an academic degree may be abbreviated after an individual’s name. See academic degrees.

abbreviations with dates or numerals

Use the abbreviations A.D., B.C., a.m., p.m., No., and abbreviate certain months (Jan., Feb., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec.) when used with the day of the month.

Right: In 450 B.C.; at 9:30 a.m.; in room No. 6; on Sept. 16.

Wrong: Early this a.m. he asked for the No. of your room. The abbreviations are correct only with figures.

Right: Early this morning he asked for the number of your room.

See months.

abbreviations in numbered addresses

Abbreviate avenue, boulevard and street in numbered addresses: He lives on Pennsylvania Avenue. He lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Ave.

See addresses.

abbreviations of states

The names of certain states and the United States are abbreviated with periods in some circumstances.

See state names.

avoid awkward constructions with abbreviations and acronyms

Do not follow the full name of an organization, company or term with an abbreviation or acronym in parentheses or set off by dashes. If an abbreviation or acronym would not be clear on second reference without this arrangement, do not use it.

Names not commonly before the public should not be reduced to acronyms solely to save a few words.

caps and periods in abbreviations and acronyms

Use capital letters and periods according to the listings in the AP Stylebook. For words not in the AP Stylebook, use the first-listed abbreviation in Webster’s New World College Dictionary. Generally, omit periods in acronyms unless the result would spell an unrelated word. But use periods in most two-letter abbreviations: U.S., U.N., U.K., B.A., B.C. (AP, a trademark, is an exception. Also, no periods in GI, ID and EU, among others.) In headlines, do not use periods in abbreviations, unless required for clarity.

Use all caps, but no periods, in longer abbreviations when the individual letters are pronounced: ABC, CIA, FBI.

Use only an initial cap and then lowercase for abbreviations and acronyms of more than five letters, unless listed otherwise in this Stylebook or Webster’s New World College Dictionary.

specific examples of abbreviations and acronyms

The following is gathered from the relevant entries in the AP Stylebook.

• ACT (previously American College Testing); ACT is required in all references.
• Advanced Placement courses and exams; AP classes and AP exams are acceptable on second reference.
• Affordable Care Act; ACA is acceptable on second reference.
• American Hospital Association; AHA is acceptable on second reference.
• American Medical Association; AMA is acceptable on second reference.
• American Sign Language; ASL is acceptable on second reference.
• Americans with Disabilities Act; ADA is acceptable on second reference.
• artificial intelligence; AI is acceptable in headlines and on second reference.
• augmented reality; AR is acceptable on second reference.
• Black Lives Matter; BLM is acceptable on second reference.
• body mass index; BMI is acceptable on second reference.
• cardiopulmonary resuscitation; CPR is acceptable in all references.
• the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; CDC is acceptable on second reference. The shorthand CDC takes a singular verb: The CDC is investigating.
• cesarean section; C-section is acceptable on second reference.
• chronic traumatic encephalopathy; CTE is acceptable on second reference for, and in headlines if essential.
• computerized tomography; CT scan is acceptable in all references.
• Department of Agriculture; USDA is acceptable on second reference.
• Department of Commerce; do not use an acronym in any reference.
• Department of Defense; DOD is acceptable on second reference.
• Department of Education; do not use an acronym in any reference.
• Department of Energy; DOE is acceptable on second reference).
• Department of Health and Human Services; HHS is acceptable on second reference).
• Department of Homeland Security; DHS is acceptable on second reference).
• Department of Housing and Urban Development; HUD is acceptable on second reference).
• Department of the Interior; do not use an acronym in any reference.
• Department of Justice; DOJ is acceptable on second reference.
• Department of Labor; do not use an acronym in any reference.
• Department of State; do not use an acronym in any reference.
• Department of Transportation; DOT is acceptable on second reference.
• Department of the Treasury; do not use an acronym in any reference.
• Department of Veterans Affairs; VA is acceptable on second reference.
• Doctors Without Borders; use the full English name on first reference; MSF is acceptable in quotations and second references, noting that it is the abbreviation for the French name of the group, Medecins Sans Frontieres.
• electrocardiogram; EKG is acceptable on second reference.
• electronic cigarette; e-cigarette is acceptable on second reference; do not use e-cig.
• emergency room; ER is acceptable on second reference.
• emergency medical services; EMS is acceptable on second reference.
• emergency medical technician; EMT is acceptable in any reference.
• Environmental Protection Agency; EPA is acceptable on second reference.
• Equal Employment Opportunity Commission; EEOC is acceptable on second reference.
• Federal Emergency Management Agency; FEMA is acceptable on second reference.
• Food and Drug Administration; FDA is acceptable on second reference.
• Free Application for Federal Student Aid; FAFSA is acceptable on second reference.
• General Services Administration; GSA is acceptable on second reference.
• genetically modified organism; GMO is acceptable on second reference.
• grade-point average; GPA is acceptable in all references.
• high definition, high-definition; HD is acceptable on second reference.
• high-definition television set; HDTV is acceptable on second reference.
• individual retirement account; IRA is acceptable on second reference.
• Individuals with Disabilities Education Act; use the acronym IDEA only in direct quotations.
• information technology; for general audiences, use IT only on second reference; for more technically oriented audiences, IT is acceptable on all references.
• Internal Revenue Service; IRS is acceptable on second reference.
• in vitro fertilization; IVF is acceptable on second reference.
• internet service provider; ISP is acceptable on second reference.
• intrauterine device; IUD is acceptable on second reference for intrauterine device.
• Johnson & Johnson; J&J is acceptable on second reference.
• Lou Gehrig’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; use Lou Gehrig’s disease on first reference, but include the medical name later; ALS is acceptable in headlines and on second reference.
• magnetic resonance imaging; MRI is acceptable in all references.
• Middle East respiratory syndrome; MERS is acceptable on second reference.
• National Institutes of Health; NIH is acceptable on second reference.
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration; OSHA is acceptable on second reference.
• personal protective equipment; PPE is acceptable on second reference.
• post-traumatic stress disorder; PTSD is acceptable on first reference, but spell out on second reference; if there is only one reference, spell out post-traumatic stress disorder.
• SAT (previously Scholastic Assessment Test and later Scholastic Aptitude Test); SAT is required in all references.
• search engine optimization; SEO is acceptable on second reference.
• transgender; the shorthand trans is acceptable on second reference and in headlines.
• tuberculosis; TB is acceptable on second reference.
• user interface; UI is acceptable on second reference.
• venereal disease; VD is acceptable on second reference.
• virtual private network; VPN is acceptable on second reference.
• virtual reality; VR is acceptable on second reference.
• World Health Organization; WHO is acceptable on second reference.

The following is from AP Stylebook’s Ask the Editor section.

• neonatal intensive care unit; NICU is acceptable on second reference.

The following are UAMS-specific styles.

• Cognitively Based Assessment of, for, and as Learning; CBAL is acceptable in all references.
• College Level Examination Program; CLEP is acceptable on second reference.
• College Scholarship Service Profile; CSS Profile is acceptable on second reference.
• Educational Testing Service; ETS is acceptable on second reference.
• Examen de Admisión a Estudios de Posgrado; EXADEP is acceptable on second reference.
• Graduate Record Examinations; GRE is acceptable on second reference.
• High School Equivalency Test; HiSET is acceptable in all references.
• International Baccalaureate; IB classes and IB exams are acceptable on second reference.
• International English Language Testing System; IELTS is acceptable on second reference.
• internet-based Test of English as a Foreign Language; TOEFL iBT is acceptable in all references.
• Pre-Advanced Placement courses and exams; Pre-AP classes and Pre-AP exams are acceptable on second reference.
• Preliminary SAT/National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test; PSAT/NMSQT is acceptable on second reference.
• Secondary Level English Proficiency; SLEP is acceptable in all references.
• Speaking Proficiency English Assessment Kit; SPEAK is acceptable in all references.
• Test de français international; TFI is acceptable in all references.
• Test of English as a Foreign Language; TOEFL is acceptable in all references.
• Test of English for International Communications; TOEIC is acceptable in all references.
• Test of Oral Proficiency; TOP is acceptable on second reference.
• user experience; UX is acceptable on second reference.

academic departments

Use lowercase except for words that are proper nouns or adjectives: the department of history, the history department, the department of English, the English department, or when department is part of the official and formal name: University of Connecticut Department of Economics.

See academic degree programs; course titles; fields of study.

academic degree programs

The following is a UAMS-specific style.

When referring to programs without using the official name of the program: associate degree program, bachelor’s degree program, master’s degree program, doctoral degree program.

When referring to a specific programs and including the field of study without using the official name of the program:

• If the field of study is one or two words, counting hyphenated words as multiple words, start with the field of study.
  • nursing bachelor’s degree program
  • clinical nutrition master’s degree program
  • audiology doctoral degree program
• If the field of study is three or more words, counting hyphenated words as multiple words, end with the field of study.
  • bachelor’s degree program in nuclear medicine imaging sciences
  • master’s degree program in speech-language pathology
  • doctoral degree program in health systems and services research

See academic degrees; academic departments; course titles; fields of study.

academic degrees

If mention of degrees is necessary to establish someone’s credentials, the preferred form is to avoid an abbreviation and use instead a phrase such as: Fatima Kader, who has a doctorate in psychology.

Use an apostrophe in bachelor’s degree, a master’s, etc., but there is no possessive in Bachelor of Arts or Master of Science.

Also: an associate degree (no possessive).

Use such abbreviations as B.A., M.A., LL.D. and Ph.D. only when the need to identify many individuals by degree on first reference would make the preferred form cumbersome. Use these abbreviations only after a full name — never after just a last name.

When used after a name, an academic abbreviation is set off by commas: John Snow, Ph.D., spoke.

Do not precede a name with a courtesy title for an academic degree and follow it with the abbreviation for the degree in the same reference.

See academic degree programs; academic departments; course titles; doctor; fields of study; Master of Arts, Master of Science, Master of Business Administration.

Master of Arts, Master of Science, Master of Business Administration

Abbreviated M.A., M.S., but MBA. A master’s degree or a master’s is acceptable in any reference.

See academic degrees.

Ph.D., Ph.D.s

The preferred form is to say a person holds a doctorate and name the individual’s area of specialty.

See doctor.

academic titles

Capitalize and spell out formal titles such as chancellor, chair, etc., when they precede a name. Lowercase elsewhere.

Lowercase modifiers such as department in department Chair Jerome Wiesner.

See doctor and titles.

addresses

Use the abbreviations Ave., Blvd. and St. only with a numbered address: 1600 Pennsylvania Ave. Spell them out and capitalize when part of a formal street name without a number: Pennsylvania Avenue. Lowercase and spell out when used alone or with more than one street name: Massachusetts and Pennsylvania avenues.

All similar words (alley, drive, road, terrace, etc.) always are spelled out. Capitalize them when part of a formal name without a number; lowercase when used alone or with two or more names.

Always use figures for an address number: 9 Morningside Circle.

Spell out and capitalize First through Ninth when used as street names; use figures for 10th and above: 7 Fifth Ave., 100 21st St.

Abbreviate compass points used to indicate directional ends of a street or quadrants of a city in a numbered address: 222 E. 42nd St., 562 W. 43rd St., 600 K St. NW. Do not abbreviate if the number is omitted: East 42nd Street, West 43rd Street, K Street Northwest. No periods in quadrant abbreviations (NW, SE) unless customary locally.

Use periods in the abbreviation P.O. for P.O. Box numbers.

See numerals.

highway designations

Use these forms, as appropriate in the context, for highways identified by number: U.S. Highway 1, U.S. Route 1, U.S. 1, state Route 34, Route 34, Interstate Highway 495, Interstate 495. On second reference only for Interstate: I-495.

When a letter is appended to a number, capitalize it but do not use a hyphen: Route 1A.

See addresses and numerals.

admission, admissions

The following is a UAMS-specific style.

Use admissions for the names of organizations and related uses: Office of Admissions, Admissions Committee, admissions staff.

Use admission when referring to the action of admitting students: early admission candidates, admission cycle, admission factors, admission to the program.

Lowercase is preferred except when used in the name of an organization or in formal titles when they precede a name.

See academic titles and capitalization of organizations and institutions.

ages

Use when deemed relevant to the situation. If someone is quoted as saying, “I’m too old to get another job,” the age is relevant. Generally, use ages for profiles, obituaries, significant career milestones and achievements unusual for the age. Use ages for people commenting or providing information only if their age is relevant to their comments (e.g., a teenager’s comment on video games aimed at that age group). Appropriate background, such as a parent of two young children or a World War II veteran, may suffice instead of the actual age.

Always use figures. The girl is 15 years old; the law is 8 years old; the 101-year-old house. When the context does not require years or years old, the figure is presumed to be years.

Use hyphens for ages expressed as adjectives before a noun or as substitutes for a noun.

Examples: A 5-year-old boy, but the boy is 5 years old. The boy, 7, has a sister, 10. The woman, 26, has a daughter 2 months old. The race is for 3-year-olds. The woman is in her 30s (no apostrophe).

See numerals.

capitalization

In general, avoid unnecessary capitals. Use a capital letter only if you can justify it by one of the principles listed here.

Many words and phrases, including special cases, are listed separately in the AP Stylebook. Entries that are capitalized without further comment should be capitalized in all uses.

If there is no relevant listing in the AP Stylebook for a particular word or phrase, consult Webster’s New World College Dictionary. Use lowercase if the dictionary lists it as an acceptable form for the sense in which the word is being used.

As used in the AP Stylebook, capitalize means to use uppercase for the first letter of a word. If additional capital letters are needed, they are called for by an example or a phrase such as use all caps.

capitalization of proper nouns

Capitalize nouns that constitute the unique identification for a specific person, place, or thing: John, Mary, America, Boston, England.

Some words, such as the examples just given, are always proper nouns. Some common nouns receive proper noun status when they are used as the name of a particular entity: General Electric, Gulf Oil.

capitalization of proper names

Capitalize common nouns such as party, river, street and west when they are an integral part of the full name for a person, place or thing: Democratic Party, Mississippi River, Fleet Street, West Virginia.

Lowercase these common nouns when they stand alone in subsequent references: the party, the river, the street.

Lowercase the common noun elements of names in plural uses: the Democratic and Republican parties, Main and State streets, lakes Erie and Ontario. Exception: plurals of formal titles with full names are capitalized: Presidents Jimmy Carter and Gerald R. Ford.

capitalization of popular names

Some places and events lack officially designated proper names but have popular names that are the effective equivalent: the Combat Zone (a section of downtown Boston), the Main Line (a group of Philadelphia suburbs), the South Side (of Chicago), the Badlands (of South Dakota), the Street (the financial community in the Wall Street area of New York).The principle applies also to shortened versions of the proper names of one-of-a-kind events: the Series (for the World Series), the Derby (for the Kentucky Derby). This practice should not, however, be interpreted as a license to ignore the general practice of lowercasing the common noun elements of a name when they stand alone.

capitalization of derivatives

Capitalize words that are derived from a proper noun and still depend on it for their meaning: American, Christian, Christianity, English, French, Marxism, Shakespearean.

Lowercase words that are derived from a proper noun but no longer depend on it for their meaning: french fries, herculean, malapropism, pasteurize, quixotic, venetian blind.

capitalization of sentences

Capitalize the first word in a statement that stands as a sentence.

In poetry, capital letters are used for the first words of some phrases that would not be capitalized in prose.

capitalization of compositions

See composition titles.

capitalization of titles

Capitalize formal titles when used immediately before a name. Lowercase formal titles when used alone or in constructions that set them off from a name by commas.

Use lowercase at all times for terms that are job descriptions rather than formal titles.

capitalization of organizations and institutions

Capitalize the full names of organizations and institutions: the American Medical Association; First Presbyterian Church; General Motors Co.; Harvard University, Harvard University Medical School; the Procrastinators Club; the Society of Professional Journalists.

Retain capitalization if Co., Corp. or a similar word is deleted from the full proper name: General Motors.

Subsidiaries: Capitalize the names of major subdivisions: the Pontiac Motor Division of General Motors.

Internal Elements: Use lowercase for internal elements of an organization when they have names that are widely used generic terms: the board of directors of General Motors, the board of trustees of Columbia University, the history department of Harvard University, the sports department of the Daily Citizen-Leader.

Capitalize internal elements of an organization when they have names that are not widely used generic terms: the General Assembly of the World Council of Churches, the House of Delegates of the American Medical Association, the House of Bishops and House of Deputies of the Episcopal Church.

Flip-flopped Names: Retain capital letters when commonly accepted practice flops a name to delete the word of: Harvard School of Dental Medicine, Harvard Dental School.

Do not, however, flop formal names that are known to the public with the word of: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, for example, not Massachusetts Technology Institute.

capitalization of diseases

The following was copied from the AP Stylebook entry on diseases.

Do not capitalize diseases such as cancer, emphysema, leukemia, hepatitis, etc.

When a disease is known by the name of a person or geographical area identified with it, capitalize only the proper noun element: Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Ebola virus disease, etc.

company names

For a company’s formal name, consult the New York Stock Exchange, Nasdaq or filings with the Securities and Exchange Commission.

Do not use a comma before Inc. or Ltd., even if it is included in the formal name.

You must include the full company name in the body of any story in which the subject matter could affect a company’s business, although not necessarily on first reference when the informal name can be used. For example, Costco is acceptable for Costco Wholesale Corp. on first reference as long as the full name appears elsewhere in the story. This ensures the story will be among the search results on major websites.

Include the corporate name, for example, in a story on an earnings report, or in a story on a plane crash that could affect the airline’s stock price. However, the corporate name might be irrelevant in a story about a political candidate’s appearance at a local retail store.

If “The” is part of the formal company name it should be included. For example: The Walt Disney Co.

Generally, follow the spelling preferred by the company, but capitalize the first letter of company names in all uses: e.g., Adidas, Lululemon. Exceptions include company names such as eBay, which have a capital letter elsewhere in the name. However, company names should always be capitalized at the beginning of a sentence. For corporate news, AP may use the legal name from the Securities and Exchange Commission filing rather than a company’s preference.

Do not use all-capital-letter names unless the letters are individually pronounced: BMW. Others should be uppercase and lowercase. Ikea, not IKEA; USA Today, not USA TODAY.

The + symbol is acceptable when it is pronounced as part of a company, brand or event name: Disney+, Apple TV+, ESPN+, CompTia Network+. Do not use in slugs of pages or posts.

Use an ampersand only if it is part of the company’s formal name, but not otherwise in place of and. Do not use in slugs of pages or posts.

Do not use other symbols such as exclamation points or asterisks that form contrived spellings that might distract or confuse a reader. Use Yahoo, not Yahoo!; Toys R Us, not Toys “R” Us; E-Trade, not E*Trade.

Use the lowercase unless it is part of the company’s formal name.

Notes on some individual companies:

• FedEx No space.
• Johnson & Johnson J&J is acceptable on second reference.
• Procter & Gamble Co. P&G is acceptable on second reference.
• IBM Acceptable in all references for International Business Machines Corp.
• MGM Acceptable in all references for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Inc.
• 3M Trademark and name of the company formerly known as Minnesota Mining & Manufacturing.
• UPS Acceptable in all references for United Parcel Service Inc.
• Volkswagen of America Inc. The U.S. subsidiary of the German company Volkswagen AG. Volkswagen is acceptable for either on second reference as long as the specific company is clear in the context.
• Walmart Inc. It changed its legal name from Wal-Mart Stores Inc. in 2018.

incorporated in company names

Abbreviate and capitalize as Inc. when used as a part of a corporate name. Do not set off with commas: Tyson Foods Inc. announced …

See company names.

compose, comprise, constitute

Compose means to create or put together. It commonly is used in both the active and passive voices: She composed a song. The United States is composed of 50 states. The zoo is composed of many animals.

Comprise means to contain, to include all or embrace. It is best used only in the active voice, followed by a direct object: The United States comprises 50 states. The jury comprises five men and seven women. The zoo comprises many animals.

Constitute, in the sense of form or make up, may be the best word if neither compose nor comprise seems to fit: Fifty states constitute the United States. Five men and seven women constitute the jury. A collection of animals can constitute a zoo.

Use include when what follows is only part of the total: The price includes breakfast. The zoo includes lions and tigers.

composition titles

Apply these guidelines to the titles of books, movies, plays, poems, albums, songs, operas, radio and television programs, lectures, speeches, and works of art:

capitalization of composition titles

Capitalize all words in a title except articles (a, an, the); prepositions of three or fewer letters (for, of, on, up, etc.); and conjunctions of three or fewer letters (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet, etc.) unless any of those start or end the title.

Capitalize prepositions of four or more letters (above, after, down, inside, over, with, etc.) and conjunctions of four or more letters (because, while, since, though, etc.)

Capitalize both parts of a phrasal verb: “What To Look For in a Mate”; “Turn Off the Lights in Silence.” But: “A Life of Eating Chocolate for Stamina”; “Living With Both Feet off the Ground.” (Note the different uses of for and off, and thus the different capitalization, in those examples.)

Capitalize to in infinitives: “What I Want To Be When I Grow Up.”

The following is from AP Stylebook’s Ask the Editor section.

Capitalize both parts of a hyphenated term.

quotation marks and composition titles

Put quotation marks around the names of all such works except the Bible, the Quran and other holy books, and books that are primarily catalogs of reference material. In addition to catalogs, this category includes almanacs, directories, dictionaries, encyclopedias, gazetteers, handbooks and similar publications.

Examples: “The Star-Spangled Banner,” “The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich,” “Gone With the Wind,” “Of Mice and Men,” “For Whom the Bell Tolls,” “Time After Time,” the “Today” show, the “CBS Evening News,” “This Is Us,” “A Star Is Born,” “Star Wars,” “Game of Thrones.”

Examples of Reference Works: IHS Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft; Encyclopaedia Britannica; Webster’s New World College Dictionary, Fifth Edition.

Do not use quotation marks around such software titles as WordPerfect or Windows; apps; or around names of video, online or analog versions of games.

Examples: FarmVille, Pokemon Go, The Legend of Zelda, Monopoly.

Do not use quotation marks for sculptures.

Examples: The Thinker, Michelangelo’s Pieta.

For other classical music titles, use quotation marks around the composition’s nicknames but not compositions identified by its sequence.

Examples: Dvorak’s “New World Symphony.” Dvorak’s Symphony No. 9.

translating foreign composition titles

Translate a foreign title into English unless a work is generally known by its foreign name. An exception to this is reviews of musical performances. In those instances, generally refer to the work in the language it was sung in, so as to differentiate for the reader. However, musical compositions in Slavic languages are always referred to in their English translations.

Examples: Rousseau’s “War,” not Rousseau’s “La Guerre.” But: Leonardo da Vinci’s “Mona Lisa.” Mozart’s “The Marriage of Figaro” if sung in English but “Le Nozze di Figaro” if sung in Italian. Mozart’s “The Magic Flute” if sung in English but “Die Zauberfloete” if sung in German. “Die Walkuere” and “Goetterdaemmerung” from Wagner’s “Der Ring des Nibelungen” if sung in German but “The Valkyrie” and “The Twilight of the Gods” from “The Ring of the Nibelung” if sung in English. Janacek’s “From the House of the Dead,” not Janacek’s “Z Mrtveho Domu.”

county names

Capitalize when an integral part of a proper name: Dade County, Nassau County, Suffolk County.

Capitalize the full names of county governmental units: the Dade County Commission, the Orange County Department of Social Services, the Suffolk County Legislature.

Retain capitalization for the name of a county body if the proper noun is not needed in the context; lowercase the word county if it is used to distinguish an agency from state or federal counterparts: the Board of Supervisors, the county Board of Supervisors; the Department of Social Services, the county Department of Social Services. Lowercase the board, the department, etc. whenever they stand alone.

Capitalize county if it is an integral part of a specific body’s name even without the proper noun: the County Commission, the County Legislature. Lowercase the commission, the legislature, etc. when not preceded by the word county.

Capitalize as part of a formal title before a name: County Manager John Smith. Lowercase when it is not part of the formal title: county Health Commissioner Frank Jones.

Avoid county of phrases where possible, but when necessary, always lowercase: the county of Westchester.

Lowercase plural combinations: Westchester and Rockland counties.

Apply the same rules to similar terms such as parish.

course titles

The following is from AP Stylebook’s Ask the Editor section.

If you are referring to the official name of a course, make that clear and capitalize it. I am excited to take the Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning class.

See academic departments; academic degree programs; fields of study.

dates, months and years

dates

Always use Arabic figures, without st, nd, rd or th.

See months for examples and punctuation guidelines.

months

Capitalize the names of months in all uses. When a month is used with a specific date, abbreviate only Jan., Feb., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov. and Dec. Spell out when using alone, or with a year alone.

When a phrase lists only a month and a year, do not separate the year with commas. When a phrase refers to a month, day and year, set off the year with commas.

Examples: January 2016 was a cold month. Jan. 2 was the coldest day of the month. His birthday is May 8. Feb. 14, 2013, was the target date. She testified that it was Friday, Dec. 3, when the crash occurred.

In tabular material, use these three-letter forms without a period: Jan, Feb, Mar, Apr, May, Jun, Jul, Aug, Sep, Oct, Nov, Dec.

See dates and years.

years

When a phrase refers to a month and day within the current year, do not include the year: The hearing is scheduled for June 26. If the reference is to a past or future year, include the year and set it off with commas: Feb. 14, 2025, is the target date. Use an s without an apostrophe to indicate spans of decades or centuries: the 1890s, the 1800s.

Years are an exception to the general rule in numerals that a figure is not used to start a sentence: 2013 was a very good year.

See A.D.; B.C.; century; decades; historical periods and events; months and numerals.

The following is a UAMS-specific style.

For content on pages on UAMS websites, include the year. For content on posts on UAMS websites, follow the standard AP Style guideline.

See months and numerals.

directions and regions

compass directions

In general, lowercase north, south, northeast, northern, etc., when they indicate compass direction

Some examples:

• He drove west.
• The cold front is moving east.

regions

Capitalize north, south, northeast, northern, etc. when they designate regions.

Some examples:

• A storm system that developed in the Midwest is spreading eastward.
• It will bring showers to the East Coast by morning and to the entire Northeast by late in the day.
• Showers and thunderstorms were forecast in the Texas Panhandle.
• High temperatures will prevail throughout the Western states.
• Settlers from the East went to the West in search of new lives.
• The customs of the East are different from those of the West.
• The Northeast depends on the Midwest for its food supply.
• She has a Southern accent.
• He is a Northerner.
• Asian nations are opening doors to Western businessmen.
• The candidate developed a Southern strategy.
• The storm developed in the South Pacific.
• European leaders met to talk about supplies of oil from Southeast Asia.
• She studied Eastern civilizations.
• He was a student of Western philosophy.

directions and regions with names of nations

Lowercase unless they are part of a proper name or are used to designate a politically divided nation: northern France, eastern Canada, the western United States.

But: Northern Ireland, South Korea.

directions and regions with states and cities

The preferred form is to lowercase directional or area descriptions when referring to a section of a state or city: western Montana, southern Atlanta.

But capitalize compass points:

— When part of a proper name: North Dakota, West Virginia.

— When used in denoting widely known sections: Southern California, West Texas, the South Side of Chicago, the Lower East Side of New York. If in doubt, use lowercase.

The following are UAMS-specific styles.

— When used in denoting widely known sections of Arkansas: Northwest Arkansas.

directions and regions in forming proper names

When combining with another common noun to form the name for a region or location.

Some examples:

• the North Woods
• the South Pole
• the Far East
• the Middle East
• the West Coast (the entire region, not the coastline itself; see coast)
• the Eastern Shore
• the Western Hemisphere

disabilities

The terms disabilities and disabled include a broad range of physical, psychological, developmental and intellectual conditions both visible and invisible.

Perceptions of disabilities vary widely. Language about disabilities is both wide-ranging and evolving. Disabled people are not monolithic. They use diverse terms to describe themselves. Many, for example, use the term people with disabilities. Both people with disabilities and disabled people are acceptable terms, but try to determine the preference of a person or group.

Use care and precision, considering the impact of specific words and the terms used by the people you are writing about.

When possible, ask people how they want to be described. Be mindful that the question of identity-first vs. person-first language is vital for many.

The terms disabilities and disabled are generally embraced by disabled people and are acceptable when relevant. Do not use euphemisms such as handi-capable, differently abled or physically challenged, other than in direct quotations or in explaining how an individual describes themself. Do not use handicap for a disability or handicapped for a person.

Limit use of the term disorder other than in the names of specific conditions, as well as words such as impairment, abnormality and special.

In general, refer to a disability only if relevant to the story, and if a medical diagnosis has been made or the person uses the term. If relatives or others use the term, ask how they know, then consider carefully whether to include the information.

Avoid writing that implies ableism: the belief that abilities of people who aren’t disabled are superior. Ableism is a concept similar to racism, sexism and ageism in that it includes stereotypes, generalizations, and demeaning views and language. It is a form of discrimination or prejudice against people with disabilities.

Don’t limit coverage of disabled people to coverage of disabilities. People with disabilities are experts in as many fields as nondisabled people are. Include their voices and their images in your regular coverage of any topic.

Avoid “inspiration porn” — stories or photos meaning to portray something positive or uplifting, with the unintended implication that a disability is negative and that disabled people are objects of pity or wonder.

If a disability is pertinent to the story, provide brief details explaining that relevance. For example: Merritt, who is blind and walks with the help of a guide dog, said she is pleased with the city’s walkway improvements. Feldman said the airline kicked her family off a plane after her 3-year-old refused to wear a mask. She said the mask refusal relates to her son’s autism. But not: Zhang, who has paraplegia, is a fan of the Philadelphia Phillies.

Some people use person-first language in describing themselves: a man with Down syndrome or a woman with schizophrenia.

Others view their disability as central to their identity and use identity-first language, such as an autistic woman or deaf students. Autistic people and deaf people often — but not always — use identity-first language.

When preferences of an individual or group can’t be determined, try to use a mix of person-first and identity-first language.

Avoid using disability-related words lightly or in unrelated situations, and avoid direct quotations using such wording unless essential to the story. Some examples: calling a person or an idea demented, psychotic, lame, blind, catatonic, moronic, retarded, on the spectrum, etc.; saying the warning falls on deaf ears or he turned a blind eye or the awards show is schizophrenic. As in all writing, consider word choice carefully. Words that seem innocuous to some people can have specific and deeply personal or offensive meanings to others. Alternative phrasing is almost always possible.

Do not write in a way that implies a person’s condition or disability is related to a crime or other wrongdoing unless that link has been firmly established by experts in the specific case and is explained in the story.

Other language or constructions not to use:

• Words that suggest pity, such as afflicted with, battling or suffers from any disability or illness, or that a person overcame her disability. Instead: has cancer, being treated for ADHD. Bear in mind that disabilities can be a combination of both challenges and assets. Generally avoid living with constructions unless a person uses that for themself.
• Cliches such as inspiring and brave.
• Dehumanizing mass terms such as the disabled, the blind, the mentally ill, etc. As with all writing, avoid broad generalizations, labels and stereotypes.
• Terms such as normal or typical for someone who does not have a disability. Instead: People without a disability, nondisabled. Use care in deciding whether to use the term able-bodied, although the term has specific meaning in contexts such as some government reports and is appropriate in such references.

Negative or condescending language such as wheelchair-bound or Alzheimer’s victim. Instead use accurate, neutral language such as uses a wheelchair or a person with Alzheimer’s disease.

able-bodied

Use care in deciding whether to use this term for people who don’t have disabilities. If necessary to make a distinction, the terms nondisabled or people without disabilities often are preferable.

See disabilities.

ableism

Discrimination or prejudice against people with disabilities; the belief that abilities of people who aren’t disabled are superior. A concept similar to racism, sexism and ageism in that it includes stereotypes, generalizations, and demeaning views and language. It is a form of discrimination or prejudice against people with disabilities.

See disabilities.

albinism, albino

Albinism is a genetic condition that reduces the amount of melanin pigment in the skin, hair and/or eyes. People with albinism have vision problems that are not correctable with eyeglasses; the degree of vision loss varies. Describe a person as having albinism only if relevant to the story, and if a medical diagnosis has been made or the person uses the term. If relatives or others use the term, ask how they know, then consider carefully whether to include the information. Avoid referring to people with albinism as albinos or an albino, unless the group or person prefers that term. The adjective albino is acceptable for animals or plants with the condition.

See disabilities.

American Sign Language

A complete language consisting of manual signs and gestures, facial expressions, and body positions used by many deaf and hard-of-hearing people in the United States, Canada and a number of other countries. It does not parallel English grammatical structure. ASL is acceptable on second reference.

Some minority linguistic signing communities within the United States and some parts of Canada use either dialects of ASL or what are considered to be separate languages. Examples include Black American Sign Language and North American Indian Sign Language.

Other countries or regions may have their own sign languages, such as British Sign Language and French Sign Language.

When quoting someone who signs, explain on first reference: The city’s economic forecast is promising, Cauley said through a sign language interpreter. On later references, simply said is sufficient.

See deaf, Deaf, hard of hearing; disabilities.

Americans with Disabilities Act

A 1990 U.S. law that prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability. ADA is acceptable on second reference. The law defines a disability as a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities. It does not specifically name all disabilities that are covered.

See disabilities.

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

One of the most common developmental disorders in children; often lasts into adulthood. People with ADHD may be overly active or may have trouble paying attention or controlling impulsive behavior. ADHD is acceptable on first reference, but spell out shortly thereafter. Describe a person as having ADHD only if relevant to the story, and if a medical diagnosis has been made or the person uses the term. If relatives or others use the term, ask how they know, then consider carefully whether to include the information. Generally, when relevant, say a person has ADHD rather than is ADHD, unless the person prefers the latter. Do not use the outdated terms attention-deficit disorder or ADD.

See disabilities; neurodiversity, neurodivergent, neurodiverse, neurotypical.

autism spectrum disorder, autism

Umbrella terms for a broad range of developmental disorders that can involve widely varying degrees of intellectual, language and social difficulties, and repetitive behaviors. Describe a person as autistic only if relevant to the story, and if a medical diagnosis has been made or the person uses the term. If relatives or others use the term, ask how they know, then consider carefully whether to include the information.

Many autistic people strongly prefer identity-first language: She is autistic; he is an autistic student. Some prefer person-first language: She has autism; people with autism. Try to determine the preference.

When a preference isn’t known, and in describing groups of autistic people, use identity-first language.

Do not use the term an autistic or autistics as a noun unless someone describes themself that way. Do not use ASD. Do not describe someone as being on the spectrum.

Asperger’s syndrome, previously classified separately, is the old name for one form of autism. Do not refer to Asperger’s syndrome unless an individual or family member uses the term. If used by others, explain that it is a form of autism and follow guidelines above.

See disabilities; high functioning, low functioning; neurodiversity, neurodivergent, neurodiverse, neurotypical.

bipolar disorder

A mental illness that causes dramatic shifts in mood, energy, activity levels and concentration levels. These range from periods of extremely elated, irritable or energized behavior (known as manic episodes) to very sad, indifferent or hopeless periods (known as depressive episodes).

Describe a person as having bipolar disorder only if relevant to the story, and if a medical diagnosis has been made or the person uses the term. If relatives or others use the term, ask how they know, then consider carefully whether to include the information.

Do not use the terms manic-depressive illness or manic depression.

See disabilities; depression (mental health); mental illness.

birth defect

Acceptable in broad references such as lessening the chances of birth defects or about 1 in 33 babies in the U.S. has a birth defect. Do not use the term when referring to a specific person or to a group of people with a specific condition. Instead, be specific about the condition and use only if relevant to the story. Some prefer the term congenital disorder.

See disabilities.

blind, limited vision, low vision/partially sighted/visually impaired

Blind describes a person with complete loss of sight. In addition, many people with some vision identify as blind because they feel an affinity with the blind community and are proud of their identities. Blind, along with terms such as a person/people with low vision, person/people with limited vision, person/people with vision loss, partially sighted person/people are acceptable if an individual or group uses them for themself. Try to determine a preference.

In referring to groups when a preference can’t be determined: blind or partially sighted people, or people with blindness or low vision.

When possible, ask if a person or group uses identity-first language (blind students) or person-first language (students who are blind). If a preference can’t be determined, aim to use a mix of those approaches.

It may not be relevant or necessary to specify the amount of vision a person has.

In order to be legally blind, a person must have a visual acuity of 20/200.

See disabilities.

brain injury, traumatic brain injury, brain damage, brain-damaged

Traumatic brain injury usually results from a violent blow or jolt. Do not use TBI other than in direct quotations, and explain the acronym. Other brain injuries occur as a result of illnesses such as cancer, stroke and infection. Brain injuries vary in severity and duration. Describe a person as having brain damage or having a traumatic brain injury only if relevant to the story, and if a medical diagnosis has been made or the person uses the term. If relatives or others use the term, ask how they know, then consider carefully whether to include the information.

Do not say a person is brain-damaged. Instead, has brain damage or has a brain injury.

See disabilities.

caregiver, caretaker

A caregiver is a person who takes care of someone requiring close attention, such as a person with serious illnesses or age-related concerns. Generally use that term, rather than caretaker, in situations involving people receiving care. The term caretaker generally refers to a person who takes care of something, such as a house, when the owner isn’t present, or to a person or entity carrying out duties temporarily (a caretaker government).

See diseases; disabilities; mental illness; older adult(s), older person/people.

deaf, Deaf, hard of hearing

Use the lowercase form deaf for the audiological condition of total or major hearing loss and for people with total or major hearing loss, when relevant to the story. Hard of hearing can be used to describe people with a lesser degree of hearing loss. The phrase deaf and hard of hearing encompasses both groups. Do not use hearing-impaired, hearing impairment or partially deaf unless a person uses those terms for themself.

Many deaf people who use sign language have a deeply ingrained sense of culture and community built around the experience of deafness and sign language, and use the uppercase form Deaf to signify that culture. The uppercase is acceptable, if used by the person or group, in descriptions such as the cultural Deaf community, Deaf education, Deaf culture, etc.

Do not use the uppercase form for a person; use lowercase deaf, the standard style for medical conditions: Lagier, who is deaf, said the Deaf community is a powerful force in his life.

Not all people with hearing loss use sign language or identify with the Deaf culture and community; such identification can be a deeply personal choice.

When possible, ask if a person or group uses identity-first language (deaf students) or person-first language (students who are deaf). In the United States, the National Association of the Deaf recommends identity-first language unless an individual or a group uses person-first language.

The adjective deaf-blind or deafblind is acceptable to describe a person who uses either for themself. Try to determine which term the person uses. Also acceptable: deaf-blindness or deafblindness.

Do not use the terms deaf-mute or deaf and dumb.

Hyphenate hard-of-hearing as a modifier: hard-of-hearing students. But: They are hard of hearing. Do not use deaf-mute or deaf and dumb.

See American Sign Language; disabilities.

dementia

A general term for the impaired ability to remember, think or make decisions that interferes with doing everyday activities. It is not a disease itself. Alzheimer’s disease is the most common cause of dementia. Other causes include Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and traumatic brain injury. Though dementia mostly affects older adults, it is not a part of normal aging. Describe a person as having dementia only if relevant to the story, and if a medical diagnosis has been made or the person uses the term. If relatives or others use the term, ask how they know, then consider carefully whether to include the information.

The terms younger-onset or early-onset Alzheimer’s disease applies to people diagnosed before age 65.

Do not use the terms senile or demented.

See Alzheimer’s disease; disabilities.

depression (mental health)

A serious mood disorder characterized by a range of symptoms. Those include a persistent sad, anxious or “empty” mood; feelings of hopelessness, worthlessness, guilt, pessimism; loss of interest in activities; difficulty concentrating and making decisions.

Describe a person as having depression only if relevant to the story, and if a medical diagnosis has been made or the person uses the term. If relatives or others use the term, ask how they know, then consider carefully whether to include the information. Be clear on the type of depression if relevant, such as He was diagnosed with bipolar disorder or She has postpartum depression or she is being treated for depression.

Medically diagnosed depression is called clinical depression or major depressive disorder.

The terms depressing or depressed are acceptable in general uses if not intended as a slur, though alternatives are often better: She found the results disheartening, discouraging, disturbing, etc.

See disabilities; bipolar disorder; postpartum depression; seasonal affective disorder; mental illness.

Down syndrome

A condition in which a person is born with an extra chromosome, causing mild to moderate cognitive disability, developmental delays and physical challenges. Do not use the term mentally retarded. Describe a person as having Down syndrome only if relevant to the story, and if a medical diagnosis has been made or the person uses the term. If relatives or others use the term, ask how they know, then consider carefully whether to include the information. The condition is named for Dr. J. Langdon Down, who first reported it in 1866. Not Down’s syndrome.

See disabilities.

dwarf, dwarfism, little people

Dwarfism is a genetic condition resulting in an adult height below 4’10.” Refer to the condition only if relevant to the story. Some people prefer the term dwarf to describe themselves. Others prefer person with dwarfism or little person, both of which are used by the Little People of America organization. Try to determine an individual’s preference, and briefly explain the condition. Use person with dwarfism if the preference isn’t known. Do not use midget.

See disabilities.

dyslexia, dyslexic

Dyslexia is a learning disability characterized by problems identifying speech sounds and learning how to connect them to letters and words. Describe a person as dyslexic or having dyslexia only if relevant to the story, and if a medical diagnosis has been made or the person uses the term. If relatives or others use the term, ask how they know, then consider carefully whether to include the information. Don’t use a dyslexic as a noun unless someone describes themself that way.

See disabilities.

handicap, handicapped

Do not use those terms for a disability or a person. Avoid uses such as handicapped parking; instead, accessible parking. Terms such as golf handicap or handicapping a race are acceptable.

See disabilities.

high functioning, low functioning

Avoid these vague terms in reference to people with disabilities. Instead, be specific about the condition, and use descriptions of people’s ability levels only when relevant to the story.

See disabilities.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

The federal law that guarantees a free appropriate public education to eligible children with disabilities. Use the acronym IDEA only in direct quotations.

See disabilities.

mental illness

The terms mental illness and mentally ill include a broad range of conditions. For guidance on specific conditions, see individual entries throughout the Stylebook.

Do not describe an individual as having a mental illness unless it is clearly pertinent to a story and the diagnosis is properly sourced.

When used, identify the source for the diagnosis. Seek firsthand knowledge derived from a medical examination; ask how the source knows. Don’t rely on hearsay or speculate on a diagnosis. Avoid anonymous sources. On-the-record sources may be family members, mental health professionals, medical authorities, law enforcement officials or court records.

If someone says a person has a history of mental illness, seek details. If those details aren’t immediately available, say so in the story and do additional reporting to follow up. Include those details in later stories. Specify the time frame for the diagnosis and ask about treatment. A person’s condition can change over time, so a diagnosis of mental illness might not currently apply.

If used, comments about a history of mental illness must be attributed to law enforcement authorities, medical professionals, family members or others who have knowledge of the history and can authoritatively speak to its relevance. In the absence of definitive information, there should be a disclaimer that a link to a crime or other event had yet to be established.

Do not assume that mental illness is a factor in a violent crime, and avoid unsubstantiated statements by witnesses or first responders attributing violence to mental illness.

Studies have shown that the vast majority of people with mental illnesses are not violent, and experts say most people who are violent do not have mental illnesses.

Avoid interpreting behavior common to many people as symptoms of mental illness. Sadness, anger, exuberance and the occasional desire to be alone are normal emotions experienced by people who have mental illness as well as those who don’t.

When practical, let people with mental illness talk about their own diagnoses.

Other points:

Be specific about the condition whenever possible and include sourcing: The man accused in the killing was diagnosed with schizophrenia, according to court documents. She was diagnosed with anorexia, according to her parents. He said he was treated for depression. Avoid wording such as he is a schizophrenic or he is mentally ill unless a person describes themself that way.

Avoid descriptions that connote pity, such as afflicted with, suffers from, victim of, battling and demons. Rather, he has obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Avoid dehumanizing “the” terms such as the mentally ill. Instead: people with mental illnesses.

Do not use derogatory terms, such as insane, crazy/crazed, nuts or deranged, unless they are part of a quotation that is essential to the story.

Avoid using mental illness-related words lightly or in unrelated situations. Some examples: calling a person or an idea demented, psychotic, catatonic, etc.; or saying an awards show was schizophrenic. Alternatives include: The idea is deeply flawed or misguided; the pressure is intense; the schedule is demanding; the strategy is ineffective.

See disabilities; addiction; bipolar disorder; depression; diseases; obsessive-compulsive disorder; phobia; postpartum depression; post-traumatic stress disorder; seasonal affective disorder.

neurodiversity, neurodivergent, neurodiverse, neurotypical

Neurodiversity is the concept that differences in brain functioning such as autism, dyslexia or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are normal variations, with strengths and weaknesses. It is not a medical term. Individuals or groups that exhibit those variations are considered neurodivergent or neurodiverse. The larger population is said to be neurotypical. While use of these terms has become more common, to many they remain unfamiliar; they should be used only in direct quotations.

See disabilities.

obsessive-compulsive disorder

An anxiety disorder characterized by uncontrollable, recurring thoughts and fears that lead to repetitive and often ritualized behaviors or compulsions. OCD is acceptable on second reference; avoid in headlines. Describe a person as having OCD only if relevant to the story, and if a medical diagnosis has been made or the person uses the term. If relatives or others use the term, ask how they know, then consider carefully whether to include the information. Say someone has OCD or has obsessive-compulsive disorder, not is OCD or is obsessive-compulsive unless the person prefers the latter.

See disabilities.

Paralympics

Multisport international competition for athletes with disabilities, held at the same sites as the Winter and Summer Olympics, usually two weeks after the end of the Olympic Games. Paralympic athletes have a wide range of disability categories, including intellectual, physical and visual. The athletes are Paralympians.

See disabilities.

paraplegia/paraplegic, quadriplegia/quadriplegic

Paraplegia is the loss of movement in the lower extremities and torso. Quadriplegia is the paralysis of all four limbs as well as the torso. Both are typically caused by a spinal cord or brain injury. Refer to the condition only when relevant to the story. Do not use the term as a noun (a quadriplegic; paraplegics) unless someone describes themself that way. Do not use the shorthand para or quad unless someone uses those terms in direct quotations in reference to themself.

See disabilities.

phobia

Irrational fear or hatred, sometimes a form of mental illness (acrophobia, claustrophobia) but also used more generally in political or social contexts: homophobia, Islamophobia, xenophobia. The latter terms are acceptable in broad references or quotations: She said her prime goals are to fight xenophobia and racism. In individual cases, be specific about observable actions; avoid descriptions or language that assumes motives.

See disabilities; mental illness.

postpartum depression

A form of depression experienced by some women in the first weeks or months after childbirth. Describe a person as having postpartum depression only if relevant to the story, and if a medical diagnosis has been made or the person uses the term. If relatives or others use the term, ask how they know, then consider carefully whether to include the information. Do not use the term baby blues.

See disabilities; depression (mental health); mental illness.

post-traumatic stress disorder

A condition arising from shocking, dangerous or terrifying experiences including war, disasters, physical or sexual assault or abuse, fires, car crashes, etc. Symptoms may include flashbacks, nightmares and severe anxiety that last more than a few months. The shorthand PTSD is acceptable on first reference, but spell out on second reference. Describe a person as having PTSD only if relevant to the story, and if a medical diagnosis has been made or the person uses the term. If relatives or others use the term, ask how they know, then consider carefully whether to include the information.

See disabilities; mental illness.

seasonal affective disorder

A form of depression that occurs during the winter, when there is less sunlight. Describe a person as having seasonal affective disorder only if verified and relevant. SAD is acceptable on second reference.

See disabilities; depression (mental health); mental illness.

service animal, assistance animal, guide dog

An animal, usually a dog, that aids a person with a disability. Examples include guiding a person who is blind, alerting a deaf person to the presence of another person, retrieving dropped items, pulling a wheelchair, providing help with balance. Seeing Eye dog is a trademark for a guide dog trained by Seeing Eye Inc. of Morristown, New Jersey. Emotional support animals or therapy animals are sometimes used to help a person with depression, anxiety or other conditions. They are not considered service animals under the Americans with Disabilities Act.

See disabilities.

special needs, special education

When possible, avoid these terms. While they remain in wide use in education and law, many view them as euphemistic and offensive. Instead, aim to be specific about the needs or services in question.

See disabilities.

Special Olympics

Organization that offers 30-plus Olympic-style individual and team sports for people with intellectual disabilities. The organization supports over 5 million athletes and more than 100,000 competitions each year in more than 170 countries, as well as other activities, events and services. Athletes are called Special Olympians.

See disabilities.

stutter

A condition that involves significant problems with flow of speech, such as repetitions of syllables, elongations of sounds or prolonged stops. The term stutter is generally used rather than stammer in the United States. Refer to the condition only if relevant. For example: President Joe Biden has spoken frequently about how overcoming a stutter was one of the hardest things he’s done in life. Do not use the term stutterer for a person. Instead, a person who stutters or she has (or had) a stutter.

If using a direct quotation in which a person has stuttered, do not call attention to the stutter. Instead, treat it as you would any other: “Tomorrow is a new day,” he said. Not “T-t-tomorrow is a new day,” he said.

See disabilities.

wheelchair user

People use wheelchairs for independent mobility. Do not use confined to a wheelchair or wheelchair-bound. If a wheelchair is needed and that fact is relevant to the story, make sure the relevance is clear.

See disabilities.

diseases

Do not capitalize diseases such as cancer, emphysema, leukemia, hepatitis, etc.

When a disease is known by the name of a person or geographical area identified with it, capitalize only the proper noun element: Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Ebola virus disease, etc.

Other than in direct quotations, avoid such expressions as: He is battling cancer. She is a stroke victim. Use neutral, precise descriptions: He has stomach cancer. She had a stroke. They are being treated for malaria.

addiction

Addiction is a treatable disease that affects a person’s brain and behavior. Drug and alcohol use can cause changes in the brain that lead to compulsive use, despite damage incurred to a person’s health and relationships. Genetics, mental illness and other factors make certain people susceptible to addiction.

Addiction is the preferred term. The term substance use disorder is preferred by some health professionals and is acceptable in some uses, such as in quotations or scientific contexts. Alcoholism is acceptable for addiction to alcohol.

Avoid words like abuse or problem in favor of the word use with an appropriate modifier such as risky, unhealthy, excessive or heavy. Misuse is also acceptable. Don’t assume all people who engage in risky use of drugs or alcohol have an addiction.

Avoid alcoholic, addict, user and abuser unless individuals prefer those terms for themselves or if they occur in quotations or names of organizations, such as Alcoholics Anonymous. Avoid derogatory terminology such as junkie, drunk or crackhead unless in quotations. Many researchers and organizations, including the Office of National Drug Control Policy and the International Society of Addiction Journal Editors, agree that stigmatizing or punitive-sounding language can be inaccurate by emphasizing the person, not the disease; can be a barrier to seeking treatment; and can prejudice even doctors. Instead, choose phrasing like he was addicted, people with heroin addiction or he used drugs.

Examples: Keene had trouble keeping his job because of alcoholism, not Keene had trouble keeping his job because he was an alcoholic. Yang joined other people with heroin addictions at the conference, not Yang joined other heroin addicts at the conference.

Avoid describing sobriety as clean unless in quotations, since it implies a previous state of dirtiness instead of disease.

Not all compulsive behaviors, including shopping, eating and sex, are considered addictions. Gambling is the only one classified as an addiction in the American Psychiatric Association’s diagnostic manual. The World Health Organization says excessive video gaming can be an addiction.

Do not use the terms addiction and dependence interchangeably. Addiction usually refers to a disease or disorder; dependence may not involve one, such as some babies born to mothers who use drugs or cancer patients who take prescribed painkillers.

The term misuse can be helpful in cases of legally prescribed medications, such as if a person with a painkiller prescription purposely takes too many to get high, or excessively uses medical marijuana. Such actions do not necessarily entail an addiction but can progress into one.

See alcoholic; diseases; drugs; mental illness; naloxone; opiate, opioid.

Alzheimer’s disease

A progressive, irreversible neurological disorder and the most common form of dementia. Most victims are older than 65, but Alzheimer’s can strike at earlier ages.

chronic traumatic encephalopathy

A degenerative brain disease that researchers have linked to concussions or repeated blows to the head. It is most closely associated with football but also has been diagnosed in some athletes from other contact sports and military combat veterans. It can be identified only posthumously through an examination of the brain. CTE is acceptable on second reference, and in headlines if essential.

See disabilities; brain injury, traumatic brain injury, brain damage, brain-damaged.

e.g.

Meaning for example, it is always followed by a comma.

See i.e.

fields of study

The following is from AP Stylebook’s Ask the Editor section.

If you’re referring to a field of study, lowercase it unless it includes a proper noun, such as English or French. My undergraduate studies included courses on data structures, object-oriented programming, software engineering, web design and algorithms.

See academic departments; academic degree programs; course titles.

i.e.

Abbreviation for the Latin id est or that is and is always followed by a comma.

See e.g.

italics

AP does not italicize words in news stories. Italics are used in Stylebook entries to highlight examples of correct and incorrect usage.

The following are UAMS-specific styles.

Words or phrases can be italicized if doing so would represent stress emphasis, like when you’d read the emphasized text in a different tone of voice.

letter grades

The following is from AP Stylebook’s Ask the Editor section.

Letter grades don’t require quotation marks. He earned an A on the project. She got B’s in history and English.

See plurals for single letters.

magazine names

Capitalize the initial letters of the name but do not place it in quotes. Lowercase magazine unless it is part of the publication’s formal title: Harper’s Magazine, Newsweek magazine, Time magazine.

Check the masthead if in doubt.

names

In general, use only last names on second reference. When it is necessary to distinguish between two people who use the same last name, generally use the first and last name on subsequent references. Generally use the name a person prefers: Thomas or Tom, depending on preference; Martine McCarthy Chang may prefer McCarthy Chang or Chang on second reference. If an individual requests it, a public name rather than a real name may be used for a political dissident, or a nom de guerre for a rebel leader, if the person’s safety is an issue. In general, call children 15 or younger by their first name on second reference. Use the last name, however, if the seriousness of the story calls for it, as in a murder case, for example. For ages 16 and 17, use judgment, but generally go with the surname unless it’s a light story. Use the surname for those 18 and older.

See courtesy titles; middle initials; middle names; pseudonyms, nicknames; foreign names.

courtesy titles in names

In general, do not use courtesy titles (e.g. Mr., Miss, Ms. or Mrs.) except in direct quotations. When it is necessary to distinguish between two people who use the same last name, as in married couples or brothers and sisters, use the first and last name.

foreign names

For foreign place names, use the primary spelling in Webster’s New World College Dictionary. If it has no entry, follow the National Geographic Atlas of the World.

For personal names, follow the individual’s preference for an English spelling if it can be determined. Otherwise:

Use the nearest phonetic equivalent in English if one exists: Alexander Solzhenitsyn, for example, rather than Aleksandr, the spelling that would result from a transliteration of the Russian letters into the English alphabet.

If a name has no close phonetic equivalent in English, express it with an English spelling that approximates the sound in the original language: Anwar Sadat.

In general, lowercase particles such as de, der, la, le, and van, von when part of a given name: Charles de Gaulle, Baron Manfred von Richthofen. But follow individual preferences, as in bin Laden, or Dutch names such as Van Gogh or Van der Graaf. Capitalize the particles when the last names start a sentence: De Gaulle spoke to von Richthofen.

doctor in names

The following is a UAMS-specific style.

Use Dr. in references as a formal title before the name of an individual who holds a doctor of medicine or doctor of osteopathic medicine: Dr. Jonas Salk.

The form Dr., or Drs. in a plural construction, applies to all uses before a name, including direct quotations.

Do not use Dr. before the names of individuals who hold other types of doctoral degrees. Instead, when necessary or appropriate: Cassandra Karoub, who has a doctorate in mathematics, was lead researcher. U.S. first lady Jill Biden, who has a doctorate in education, plans to continue teaching. U.S. second gentleman Doug Emhoff, a lawyer, is joining the faculty of Georgetown Law.

In a list: Stephanie Sanchez, Ph.D.

junior and senior in names

Abbreviate as Jr. and Sr. and do not precede by a comma: Martin Luther King Jr.

The notation II or 2nd may be used if it is the individual’s preference. Note, however, that II and 2nd are not necessarily the equivalent of junior; they often are used by a grandson or nephew.

Be clear in distinguishing between father and son on second reference if both names appear in a story. The elder Smith and the younger Smith is one option; Smith Sr. and Smith Jr. is also acceptable. The possessive form: Smith Jr.’s career.

See names.

middle initials in names

Include middle initials in content where they help identify a specific individual.

See names.

middle names

Use middle names only with people who are publicly known that way (James Earl Jones), or to prevent confusion with people of the same name.

See middle initials; names.

pseudonyms, nicknames

A nickname should be used in place of a person’s given name in content only when it is the way the individual prefers to be known: Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton, Babe Ruth, Tiger Woods, Magic Johnson.

When a nickname is inserted into the identification of an individual, use quotation marks: Sen. Henry M. “Scoop” Jackson, Paul “Bear” Bryant.

Capitalize without quotation marks such terms as Sunshine State, the Old Dominion, Motown, the Magic City, Old Hickory, Old Glory, Galloping Ghost.

See names.

numerals

In general, spell out one through nine: The Yankees finished second. He had nine months to go.

Use figures for 10 or above and whenever preceding a unit of measure or referring to ages of people, animals, events or things. Also in all tabular matter, and in statistical and sequential forms.

using figures for numerals

Academic course numbers: History 6, Philosophy 209.

Addresses: 210 Main St. Spell out numbered streets nine and under: 5 Sixth Ave.; 3012 50th St.; No. 10 Downing St. Use the abbreviations Ave., Blvd. and St. only with a numbered address: 1600 Pennsylvania Ave. Spell them out and capitalize without a number: Pennsylvania Avenue. See addresses.

Ages: a 6-year-old girl; an 8-year-old law; the 7-year-old house. Use hyphens for ages expressed as adjectives before a noun or as substitutes for a noun. A 5-year-old boy, but the boy is 5 years old. The boy, 5, has a sister, 10. The race is for 3-year-olds. The woman is in her 30s. 30-something, but Thirty-something to start a sentence. See ages.

Planes, ships and spacecraft designations: B-2 bomber, Queen Elizabeth 2, QE2, Apollo 9, Viking 2 An exception: Air Force One, the president’s plane. Use Roman numerals if they are part of the official designation: Titan I, Titan II.

Centuries: Use figures for numbers 10 or higher: 21st century. Spell out for numbers nine and lower: fifth century. (Note lowercase.) For proper names, follow the organization’s usage.

Court decisions: The Supreme Court ruled 5-4, a 5-4 decision. The word to is not needed, except in quotations: “The court ruled 5 to 4.”

– Court districts: 5th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals.

Dates, years and decades: Feb. 8, 2007, Class of ’66, the 1950s. For the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, 9/11 is acceptable in all references. (Note comma to set off the year when the phrase refers to a month, date and year.)

Decimals, percentages and fractions with numbers larger than 1: 7.2 magnitude quake, 3 1/2 laps, 3.7% interest, 4 percentage points. Decimalization should not exceed two places in most text material. Exceptions: blood alcohol content, expressed in three decimals: as in 0.056, and batting averages in baseball, as in .324. For amounts less than 1, precede the decimal with a zero: The cost of living rose 0.03%. Spell out fractions less than 1, using hyphens between the words: two-thirds, four-fifths. In quotations, use figures for fractions: “He was 2 1/2 laps behind with four to go.”

Dimensions, to indicate depth, height, length and width: He is 5 feet, 6 inches tall, the 5-foot-6 man (“inch” is understood), the 5-foot man, the basketball team signed a 7-footer. The car is 17 feet long, 6 feet wide and 5 feet high. The rug is 9 feet by 12 feet, the 9-by-12 rug. A 9-inch snowfall. Exception: two-by-four. Spell out the noun, which refers to any length of untrimmed lumber approximately 2 inches thick by 4 inches wide.

Distances: He walked 4 miles. He missed a 3-foot putt.GOLF CLUBS: 3-wood, 7-iron, 3-hybrid (note hyphen).HIGHWAY DESIGNATIONS: Interstate 5, U.S. Highway 1, state Route 1A. (Do not abbreviate Route. No hyphen between highway designation and number.)

Golf clubs: 3-wood, 7-iron, 3-hybrid (note hyphen).

Highway designations: Interstate 5, U.S. Highway 1, state Route 1A. (Do not abbreviate Route. No hyphen between highway designation and number.)

Mathematical usage: Multiply by 4, divide by 6. He added 2 and 2 but got 5.

Military Ranks, used As titles with names, military terms and weapons: Petty Officer 2nd Class Alan Markow, Spc. Alice Moreno, 1st Sgt. David Triplett, M16 rifle, 9 mm (note space) pistol, 6th Fleet. In military ranks, spell out the figure when it is used after the name or without a name: Smith was a second lieutenant. The goal is to make first sergeant.

Millions, billions, trillions: Use a figure-word combination. 1 million people; $2 billion, NOT one million/two billion. (Also note no hyphen linking numerals and the word million, billion or trillion.)

Monetary units: 5 cents, $5 bill, 8 euros, 4 pounds.

Odds, proportions and ratios: 9-1 long shot; 3 parts cement to 1 part water; a 1-4 chance; 1 chance in 3.

Rank: He was my No. 1 choice. (Note abbreviation for “Number”). Kentucky was ranked No. 3. The band had five Top 40 hits.

School grades: Use figures for grades 10 and above: 10th grade. Spell out for first through ninth grades: fourth grade, fifth grader.

Sequential designations: Page 1, Page 20A. They were out of sizes 4 and 5; magnitude 6 earthquake; Rooms 3 and 4; Chapter 2; line 1 but first line; Act 3, Scene 4, but third act, fourth scene; Game 1, but best of seven.

Political districts: Ward 9, 9th Precinct, 3rd Congressional District.

Recipes: 2 tablespoons of sugar to 1 cup of milk.

Speeds: 7 mph, winds of 5 to 10 mph, winds of 7 to 9 knots.

Sports scores, standings and standards: The Dodgers defeated the Phillies 10-3 (No comma between the team and the score); in golf, 3 up, but a 3-up lead; led 3-2; a 6-1-2 record (six wins, one loss, two ties); par 3; 5 handicap, 5-under-par 67 but he was 5 under par (or 5 under, with “par” understood). In narrative, spell out nine and under except for yard lines in football and individual and team statistical performances: The ball was on the 5-yard line. Seventh hole. In basketball, 3-point play and 3-point shot. In statistical performances, hyphenate as a modifier: He completed 8 of 12 passes. He made 5 of 6 (shots is understood). He was 5-for-12 passing. He had a 3-for-5 day. He was 3-for-5. He went 3-for-5 (batting, shooting, etc., is understood).

Temperatures: Use figures, except zero. It was 8 degrees below zero or minus 8. The temperature dropped from 38 to 8 in two hours.

Times: Use figures for time of day except for noon and midnight: 1 p.m.; 10:30 a.m.; 5 o’clock; 8 hours, 30 minutes, 20 seconds; a winning time of 2:17:3 (2 hours, 17 minutes, 3 seconds). Spell out numbers less than 10 standing alone and in modifiers: I’ll be there in five minutes. He scored with two seconds left. An eight-hour day. The two-minute warning.

Votes: The bill was defeated by a vote of 6-4, but by a two-vote margin.

spelling out numerals

At the start of a sentence: In general, spell out numbers at the start of a sentence: Forty years was a long time to wait. Fifteen to 20 cars were involved in the accident. An exception is years: 1992 was a very good year. Another exception: Numeral(s) and letter(s) combinations: 401(k) plans are offered. 4K TVs are flying off the shelves. 3D movies are drawing more fans.

In indefinite and casual uses: Thanks a million. He walked a quarter of a mile. One at a time; a thousand clowns; one day we will know; an eleventh-hour decision; dollar store; a hundred dollars.

In fanciful usage or proper names: Chicago Seven, Fab Four, Final Four, the Four Tops.

In formal language, rhetorical quotations and figures of speech: “Fourscore and seven years ago …” Twelve Apostles, Ten Commandments, high-five, Day One.

In fractions less than one that are not used as modifiers: reduced by one-third, he made three-fourths of his shots.

Roman numerals

They may be used for wars and to establish personal sequence for people and animals: World War I, Native Dancer II, King George V. Also for certain legislative acts (Title IX). Otherwise, use sparingly. Pro football Super Bowls should be identified by the year, rather than the Roman numerals: 1969 Super Bowl, not Super Bowl III.

ordinals

Numbers used to indicate order (first, second, 10th, 25th, etc.) are called ordinal numbers. Spell out first through ninth: fourth grade, first base, the First Amendment, he was first in line. Use figures starting with 10th.

cardinal numbers

Numbers used in counting or showing how many (2, 40, 627, etc.) are called cardinal numbers.

numerals in a series

Apply the standard guidelines: They had 10 dogs, six cats and 97 hamsters. They had four four-room houses, 10 three-room houses and 12 10-room houses.

some other punctuation and usage examples of numerals

• 3 ounces
• 4-foot-long
• 4-foot fence
• “The president’s speech lasted 28 1/2 minutes,” she said.
• DC-10 but 747B
• the 1980s, the ’80s
• the House voted 230-205 (fewer than 1,000 votes)
• Jimmy Carter outpolled Gerald Ford 40,827,292 to 39,146,157 (more than 1,000 votes)
• Carter outpolled Ford 10 votes to 2 votes in Little Junction (to avoid confusion with ratio)
• No. 3 choice, but Public School 3
• a pay increase of 12%-15%. Or: a pay increase of between 12% and 15%, or a pay increase of 12% to 15% (But: from $12 million to $14 million)
• a ratio of 2-to-1, a 2-1 ratio
• 1 in 4 voters
• seven houses 7 miles apart
• He walked 4 miles.
• minus 10, zero, 60 degrees (spell out minus)

other uses of numerals

For uses not covered by these listings, spell out whole numbers below 10, and use figures for 10 and above: They had three sons and two daughters. They had a fleet of 10 station wagons and two buses.

older adult(s), older person/people

Preferred over senior citizens, seniors or elderly as a general term when appropriate and relevant.

It is best used in general phrases that do not refer to specific individuals: concern for older people; a home for older adults. Aim for specificity when possible: new housing for people 65 and over; an exercise program for women over 70.

Definitions and understandings vary about the age range denoted by the term older adult, as well as by the terms senior citizen, senior and elderly. When an official or organization uses one of these terms, ask for specifics.

Provide context and specifics to make the meaning clear. For example, a story might begin by referring to cuts in programs for older adults, but explain soon thereafter that the programs are for people 62 and older. Another example: The researchers found that weekly exercise decreased the risk of diabetes among people in their 70s and 80s.

The term elderly is acceptable in headlines when relevant and necessary because of space constraints. But aim for specificity when space allows: Couple in their 90s die in Manhattan luxury high-rise blaze rather than Elderly couple die in Manhattan luxury high-rise blaze.

Terms like senior citizen and elderly are acceptable in reference to an individual if that person prefers them.

Do not use the elderly in reference to a group.

plurals

Follow these guidelines in forming and using plural words:

plurals for most words

Add s: boys, girls, ships, villages.

plurals for words ending in ch, s, sh, ss, x and z

Add es: churches, lenses, parishes, glasses, boxes, buzzes. (Monarchs is an exception.)

plurals for words ending in is

Change is to es: oases, parentheses, theses.

plurals for words ending in y

If y is preceded by a consonant or qu, change y to i and add es: armies, cities, navies, soliloquies. (See PROPER NAMES below for an exception.)

Otherwise add s: donkeys, monkeys.

plurals for words ending in o

If o is preceded by a consonant, most plurals require es: buffaloes, dominoes, echoes, heroes, potatoes. But there are exceptions: pianos. See individual entries in this book for many of these exceptions.

plurals for words endings in f

In general, change f to v and add es: leaves, selves. (Roof, roofs is an exception.)

plurals for words with Latin endings

Latin-root words ending in us change us to i: alumnus, alumni. (Words that have taken on English endings by common usage are exceptions: prospectuses, syllabuses.)

Most ending in a change to ae: alumna, alumnae (formula, formulas is an exception).

Most ending in um add s: memorandums, referendums, stadiums. Among those that still use the Latin ending: addenda, curricula, media.

Use the plural that Webster’s New World College Dictionary lists as most common for a particular sense of word.

plurals for words with form change

man, men; child, children; foot, feet; mouse, mice; etc.

Caution: When s is used with any of these words it indicates possession and must be preceded by an apostrophe: men’s, children’s, etc.

plurals for words the same in singular and plural

corps, chassis, deer, moose, sheep, etc.

The sense in a particular sentence is conveyed by the use of a singular or plural verb.

plurals for words plural in form, singular in meaning

Some take singular verbs: measles, mumps, news.

Others take plural verbs: grits, scissors.

plurals for compound words

Those written solid add s at the end: cupfuls, handfuls, tablespoonfuls.

For those that involve separate words or words linked by a hyphen, make the most significant word plural:

• Significant word first: adjutants general, aides-de-camp, attorneys general, courts-martial, daughters-in-law, passers-by, postmasters general, presidents-elect, secretaries-general, sergeants major.
• Significant word in the middle: assistant attorneys general, deputy chiefs of staff.
• Significant word last: assistant attorneys, assistant corporation counsels, deputy sheriffs, lieutenant colonels, major generals.

plurals for words as words

Do not use ‘s: His speech had too many “ifs,” “ands” and “buts.”

plurals for proper names

Most ending in es or s or z add es: Charleses, Joneses, Gonzalezes.

Most ending in y add s even if preceded by a consonant: the Duffys, the Kennedys, the two Kansas Citys. Exceptions include Alleghenies and Rockies.

For others, add s: the Carters, the McCoys, the Mondales.

plurals for figures

Add s: The custom began in the 1920s. The airline has two 727s. Temperatures will be in the low 20s. There were five size 7s.

(No apostrophes, an exception to Webster’s New World College Dictionary guideline under “apostrophe.”)

plurals for single letters

Use ‘s: Mind your p’s and q’s. He learned the three R’s and brought home a report card with four A’s and two B’s. The Oakland A’s won the pennant.

plurals for multiple letters

Add s: She knows her ABCs. I gave him five IOUs. Four VIPs were there.

problems and doubts for plurals

Separate entries in the AP Stylebook give plurals for troublesome words and guidance on whether certain words should be used with singular or plural verbs and pronouns.

For questions not covered by the AP Stylebook, use the plural that Webster’s New World College Dictionary lists as most common for a particular sense of a word.

post-

Follow Webster’s New World College Dictionary (pages 1139-1141 in the fifth edition). Hyphenate if not listed there.

Some exceptions:

• postgame
• post-mortem

Words without a hyphen in New World College Dictionary:

• postdate
• postdiluvian
• postdoc
• postdoctoral
• postface
• postfeminist
• postfix
• postglacial
• postgraduate
• posthypnotic
• postimpressionism
• postindustrial
• postmenopause
• postmillenial
• postmodern
• postnasal drip
• postnatal
• postnuptial
• postoperative
• postpartum
• postproduction
• postscript
• postseason
• postsecondary
• postwar

Words that use a hyphen in New World College Dictionary:

• post-bellum
• post-consumer
• post-game
• post-racial
• post-traumatic stress disorder

pre-

The rules in prefixes apply.

Follow Webster’s New World College Dictionary (pages 1146-1155 in the fifth edition). Hyphenate if not listed there.

A 2019 change: In recognition of common usage and dictionary preferences, do not hyphenate double-e combinations with pre- and re-. Other rules in prefixes apply.

Words without a hyphen in New World College Dictionary:

• preadaptation
• preamplifier
• preadaptive
• preapprove
• prearrange
• prebiological
• prebiotic
• Precambrian
• precancel
• precancerous
• precast concrete
• preclinical
• precondition
• preconcert
• preconscious
• precontract
• precook
• precool
• precritical
• predate
• predecease
• predesignate
• predigest
• predispose
• preeclampsia
• preelection
• preeminent
• preempt
• preestablish
• preexist
• prefabricate
• preform
• preformation
• preflight
• preheat
• pregame
• prehistoric
• preheat
• preignition
• prejudge
• prekindergarten
• preliterate
• premarital
• premarket
• premature
• premedical
• prementrual
• prenatal
• prenominate
• prenuptial
• preoccupancy
• preoccupy
• preoperative
• preordain
• preorder
• prepackage
• prepaid
• prepay
• preplan
• prepossess
• preproduction
• preprogrammed
• prerequisite
• presale
• preschool
• preseason
• preshrink
• presignify
• presort
• prestressed concrete
• presuppose
• pretax
• preteen
• preterm
• pretest
• prewar

Words that use a hyphen in New World College Dictionary:

• pre-censor
• pre-moistened
• pre-owned
• pre-soak

Some hyphenated coinage, not listed in the dictionary:

• pre-convention
• pre-noon

prefixes

See separate listings for commonly used prefixes.

Generally do not hyphenate when using a prefix with a word starting with a consonant.

Three rules are constant, although they yield some exceptions to first-listed spellings in Webster’s New World Dictionary.

• Except for cooperate and coordinate, use a hyphen if the prefix ends in a vowel and the word that follows begins with the same vowel.
• Use a hyphen if the word that follows is capitalized.
• Use a hyphen to join doubled prefixes: sub-subparagraph.

possessives

Follow these guidelines:

PLURAL NOUNS NOT ENDING IN S: Add ‘s: the alumni’s contributions, women’s rights.

PLURAL NOUNS ENDING IN S: Add only an apostrophe: the churches’ needs, the girls’ toys, the horses’ food, the ships’ wake, states’ rights, the VIPs’ entrance.

NOUNS PLURAL IN FORM, SINGULAR IN MEANING: Add only an apostrophe: mathematics’ rules, measles’ effects. (But see INANIMATE OBJECTS below.)

Apply the same principle when a plural word occurs in the formal name of a singular entity: General Motors’ profits, the United States’ wealth.

NOUNS THE SAME IN SINGULAR AND PLURAL: Treat them the same as plurals, even if the meaning is singular: one corps’ location, the two deer’s tracks, the lone moose’s antlers.

SINGULAR NOUNS NOT ENDING IN S: Add ‘s: the church’s needs, the girl’s toys, the horse’s food, the ship’s route, the VIP’s seat.

Some style guides say that singular nouns ending in s sounds such as ce, x, and z may take either the apostrophe alone or ‘s. See SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS, but otherwise, for consistency and ease in remembering a rule, always use ‘s if the word does not end in the letter s: Butz’s policies, the fox’s den, the justice’s verdict, Marx’s theories, the prince’s life, Xerox’s profits.

SINGULAR COMMON NOUNS ENDING IN S: Add ’s: the virus’s reach, the virus’s spread; the witness’s answer, the witness’s story. (A change from previous guidance calling for just an apostrophe if the next word begins with s.)

SINGULAR PROPER NAMES ENDING IN S: Use only an apostrophe: Achilles’ heel, Agnes’ book, Ceres’ rites, Descartes’ theories, Dickens’ novels, Euripides’ dramas, Hercules’ labors, Jesus’ life, Jules’ seat, Kansas’ schools, Moses’ law, Socrates’ life, Tennessee Williams’ plays, Xerxes’ armies.

SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: The following exceptions to the general rule for words not ending in s apply to words that end in an s sound and are followed by a word that begins with s: for appearance’ sake, for conscience’ sake, for goodness’ sake. Use ‘s otherwise: the appearance’s cost, my conscience’s voice.

PRONOUNS: Personal interrogative and relative pronouns have separate forms for the possessive. None involve an apostrophe: mine, ours, your, yours, his, hers, its, theirs, whose.

Caution: If you are using an apostrophe with a pronoun, always double-check to be sure that the meaning calls for a contraction: you’re, it’s, there’s, who’s.

Follow the rules listed above in forming the possessives of other pronouns: another’s idea, others’ plans, someone’s guess.

COMPOUND WORDS: Applying the rules above, add an apostrophe or ‘s to the word closest to the object possessed: the major general’s decision, the major generals’ decisions, the attorney general’s request, the attorneys general’s request. See the plurals entry for guidelines on forming the plurals of these words.

Also: anyone else’s attitude, John Adams Jr.’s father, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania’s motion. Whenever practical, however, recast the phrase to avoid ambiguity: the motion by Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania.

JOINT POSSESSION, INDIVIDUAL POSSESSION: Use a possessive form after only the last word if ownership is joint: Desmond and Molly’s apartment, Desmond and Molly’s stocks.

Use a possessive form after both words if the objects are individually owned: Desmond’s and Molly’s books.

DESCRIPTIVE PHRASES: Do not add an apostrophe to a word ending in s when it is used primarily in a descriptive sense: citizens band radio, a Cincinnati Reds infielder, a teachers college, a Teamsters request, a writers guide.

Memory aid: The apostrophe usually is not used if for or by rather than of would be appropriate in the longer form: a radio band for citizens, a college for teachers, a guide for writers, a request by the Teamsters.

An ‘s is required, however, when a term involves a plural word that does not end in s: a children’s hospital, a people’s republic, the Young Men’s Christian Association.

DESCRIPTIVE NAMES: Some governmental, corporate and institutional organizations with a descriptive word in their names use an apostrophe; some do not. Follow the user’s practice: Actors’ Equity, Diners Club, Ladies’ Home Journal, the National Governors Association.

QUASI POSSESSIVES: Follow the rules above in composing the possessive form of words that occur in such phrases as a day’s pay, two weeks’ vacation, three months’ work, five years’ probation. The apostrophe is used with a measurement followed by a noun (a quantity of whatever the noun is). The examples could be rephrased as a day of pay, two weeks of vacation, three months of work, five years of probation.

No apostrophe when the quantity precedes an adjective: six months pregnant, three weeks overdue, 11 years old.

DOUBLE POSSESSIVE: Two conditions must apply for a double possessive — a phrase such as a friend of John’s — to occur: 1. The word after of must refer to an animate object, and 2. The word before of must involve only a portion of the animate object’s possessions.

Otherwise, do not use the possessive form of the word after of: The friends of John Adams mourned his death. (All the friends were involved.) He is a friend of the college. (Not college’s, because college is inanimate.)

Memory aid: This construction occurs most often, and quite naturally, with the possessive forms of personal pronouns: He is a friend of mine.

INANIMATE OBJECTS: There is no blanket rule against creating a possessive form for an inanimate object, particularly if the object is treated in a personified sense. See some of the earlier examples, and note these: death’s call, the wind’s murmur.

In general, however, avoid excessive personalization of inanimate objects, and give preference to an of construction when it fits the makeup of the sentence. For example, the earlier references to mathematics’ rules and measles’ effects would better be phrased: the rules of mathematics, the effects of measles.

punctuation

The punctuation entries in this section refer to guidelines rather than rules. Guidelines should not be treated casually, however.

apostrophe (‘)

Follow these guidelines:

POSSESSIVES: See the possessives entry in main section.

PLURAL NOUNS NOT ENDING IN S: Add ‘s: the alumni’s contributions, women’s rights.

PLURAL NOUNS ENDING IN S: Add only an apostrophe: the churches’ needs, the girls’ toys, the horses’ food, the ships’ wake, states’ rights, the VIPs’ entrance.

NOUNS PLURAL IN FORM, SINGULAR IN MEANING: Add only an apostrophe: mathematics’ rules, measles’ effects. (But see INANIMATE OBJECTS below.)

Apply the same principle when a plural word occurs in the formal name of a singular entity: General Motors’ profits, the United States’ wealth.

NOUNS THE SAME IN SINGULAR AND PLURAL: Treat them the same as plurals, even if the meaning is singular: one corps’ location, the two deer’s tracks, the lone moose’s antlers.

SINGULAR NOUNS NOT ENDING IN S: Add ‘s: the church’s needs, the girl’s toys, the horse’s food, the ship’s route, the VIP’s seat.

Some style guides say that singular nouns ending in s sounds such as ce, x, and z may take either the apostrophe alone or ‘s. See SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS, but otherwise, for consistency and ease in remembering a rule, always use ‘s if the word does not end in the letter s: Butz’s policies, the fox’s den, the justice’s verdict, Marx’s theories, the prince’s life, Xerox’s profits.

SINGULAR COMMON NOUNS ENDING IN S: Add ‘s: the hostess’s invitation, the hostess’s seat; the witness’s answer, the witness’s story. (A change from previous guidance calling for just an apostrophe if the next word begins with s.)

SINGULAR PROPER NAMES ENDING IN S: Use only an apostrophe: Achilles’ heel, Agnes’ book, Ceres’ rites, Descartes’ theories, Dickens’ novels, Euripides’ dramas, Hercules’ labors, Jesus’ life, Jules’ seat, Kansas’ schools, Moses’ law, Socrates’ life, Tennessee Williams’ plays, Xerxes’ armies. (An exception is St. James’s Palace.)

SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS: The following exceptions to the general rule for words not ending in s apply to words that end in an s sound and are followed by a word that begins with s: for appearance’ sake, for conscience’ sake, for goodness’ sake. Use ‘s otherwise: the appearance’s cost, my conscience’s voice.

PRONOUNS: Personal interrogative and relative pronouns have separate forms for the possessive. None involves an apostrophe: mine, ours, your, yours, his, hers, its, theirs, whose.

Caution: If you are using an apostrophe with a pronoun, always double-check to be sure that the meaning calls for a contraction: you’re, it’s, there’s, who’s.

Follow the rules listed above in forming the possessives of other pronouns: another’s idea, others’ plans, someone’s guess.

COMPOUND WORDS: Applying the rules above, add an apostrophe or ‘s to the word closest to the object possessed: the major general’s decision, the major generals’ decisions, the attorney general’s request, the attorneys general’s request. See the plurals entry for guidelines on forming the plurals of these words.

Also: anyone else’s attitude, John Adams Jr.’s father, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania’s motion. Whenever practical, however, recast the phrase to avoid ambiguity: the motion by Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania.

JOINT POSSESSION, INDIVIDUAL POSSESSION: Use a possessive form after only the last word if ownership is joint: Fred and Sylvia’s apartment, Fred and Sylvia’s stocks.

Use a possessive form after both words if the objects are individually owned: Fred’s and Sylvia’s books.

DESCRIPTIVE PHRASES: Do not add an apostrophe to a word ending in s when it is used primarily in a descriptive sense: citizens band radio, a Cincinnati Reds infielder, a teachers college, a Teamsters request, a writers guide.

Memory aid: The apostrophe usually is not used if for or by rather than of would be appropriate in the longer form: a radio band for citizens, a college for teachers, a guide for writers, a request by the Teamsters.

An ‘s is required, however, when a term involves a plural word that does not end in s: a children’s hospital, a people’s republic, the Young Men’s Christian Association.

DESCRIPTIVE NAMES: Some governmental, corporate and institutional organizations with a descriptive word in their names use an apostrophe; some do not. Follow the user’s practice: Actors’ Equity, Diners Club, the National Governors Association.

QUASI POSSESSIVES: Follow the rules above in composing the possessive form of words that occur in such phrases as a day’s pay, two weeks’ vacation, three months’ work, five years’ probation. The apostrophe is used with a measurement followed by a noun (a quantity of whatever the noun is). The examples could be rephrased as a day of pay, two weeks of vacation, three months of work, five years of probation.

No apostrophe when the quantity precedes an adjective: six months pregnant, three weeks overdue, 11 years old.

DOUBLE POSSESSIVE: Two conditions must apply for a double possessive — a phrase such as a friend of John’s — to occur: 1. The word after of must refer to an animate object, and 2. The word before of must involve only a portion of the animate object’s possessions.

Otherwise, do not use the possessive form of the word after of: The friends of John Adams mourned his death. (All the friends were involved.) He is a friend of the college. (Not college’s, because college is inanimate).

Memory aid: This construction occurs most often, and quite naturally, with the possessive forms of personal pronouns: He is a friend of mine.

INANIMATE OBJECTS: There is no blanket rule against creating a possessive form for an inanimate object, particularly if the object is treated in a personified sense. See some of the earlier examples, and note these: death’s call, the wind’s murmur.

In general, however, avoid excessive personalization of inanimate objects, and give preference to an of construction when it fits the makeup of the sentence. For example, the earlier references to mathematics’ rules and measles’ effects would better be phrased: the rules of mathematics, the effects of measles.

OMITTED LETTERS: I’ve, it’s, don’t, rock ‘n’ roll, ’tis the season to be jolly. He is a ne’er-do-well. See contractions in main section.

OMITTED FIGURES: The class of ’62. The Spirit of ’76. The ’20s.

PLURALS OF A SINGLE LETTER: Mind your p’s and q’s. He learned the three R’s and brought home a report card with four A’s and two B’s. The Oakland A’s won the pennant.

DO NOT USE: For plurals of numerals or multiple-letter combinations.

See plurals.

brackets [ ]

Use parentheses or recast the material.

See parentheses.

colon (:)

Capitalize the first word after a colon only if it is a proper noun or the start of a complete sentence: He promised this: The company will make good on all the losses. But: There were three considerations: expense, time and feasibility.

EMPHASIS: The colon often can be effective in giving emphasis: He had only one hobby: eating.

LISTS: A frequent use of a colon is at the end of a sentence or phrase to introduce lists, tabulations, texts, etc. See lists, bulleted lists.

LISTINGS: Use the colon in such listings as time elapsed (1:31:07.2), time of day (8:31 p.m.), biblical and legal citations (2 Kings 2:14; Missouri Code 3:245-260).

DIALOGUE: Use a colon for dialogue. In coverage of a trial, for example:

Bailey: What were you doing the night of the 19th?

Mason: I refuse to answer that.

Q AND A: The colon is used for question-and-answer interviews:

Q: Did you strike him?

A: Indeed I did.

INTRODUCING QUOTATIONS: Use a comma to introduce a direct quotation of one sentence that remains within a paragraph. Use a colon to introduce long quotations within a paragraph and to end all paragraphs that introduce a paragraph of quoted material.

PLACEMENT WITH QUOTATION MARKS: Colons go outside quotation marks unless they are part of the quotation itself.

MISCELLANEOUS: Do not combine a dash and a colon.

comma (,)

The following guidelines treat some of the most frequent questions about the use of commas. Additional guidelines on specialized uses are provided in separate entries such as dates and scores.

As with all punctuation, clarity is the biggest rule. If a comma does not help make clear what is being said, it should not be there. If omitting a comma could lead to confusion or misinterpretation, then use the comma.

For detailed guidance, consult the punctuation section in the back of Webster’s New World College Dictionary.

IN A SERIES: Use commas to separate elements in a series, but do not put a comma before the conjunction in most simple series: His grandchildren are Vera, Chuck and Dave. He would nominate Marquez, Bedi, Lyman or Wong. She goes to school, plays league soccer and takes private dance lessons.

Include a final comma in a simple series if omitting it could make the meaning unclear. The governor convened his most trusted advisers, economist Olivia Schneider and polling expert Carlton Torres. (If Schneider and Torres are his most trusted advisers, don’t use the final comma.) The governor convened his most trusted advisers, economist Olivia Schneider, and polling expert Carlton Torres. (If the governor is convening unidentified advisers plus Schneider and Torres, the final comma is needed.)

Note, though, that rephrasing often is better:

The governor convened economist Olivia Schneider and polling expert Carlton Torres, his two most trusted advisers. Or The governor convened his most trusted advisers: economist Olivia Schneider and polling expert Carlton Torres. (If Schneider and Torres are the governor’s most trusted advisers.)

The governor convened his most trusted advisers, along with economist Olivia Schneider and polling expert Carlton Torres. (If the governor is convening unidentified advisers plus Schneider and Torres.)

Put a comma before the concluding conjunction in a series if an integral element of the series requires a conjunction: I had orange juice, toast, and ham and eggs for breakfast.

Use a comma also before the concluding conjunction in a complex series of phrases: The main points to consider are whether the athletes are skillful enough to compete, whether they have the stamina to endure the training, and whether they have the proper mental attitude.

See dash and semicolon for cases when elements of a series contain internal commas.

WITH EQUAL ADJECTIVES: Use commas to separate a series of adjectives equal in rank. If the commas could be replaced by the word and without changing the sense, the adjectives are equal: a thoughtful, precise manner; a dark, dangerous street.

Use no comma when the last adjective before a noun outranks its predecessors because it is an integral element of a noun phrase, which is the equivalent of a single noun: a cheap fur coat (the noun phrase is fur coat); the old oaken bucket; a new, blue spring bonnet.

WITH NONESSENTIAL CLAUSES: A nonessential clause must be set off by commas. An essential clause must not be set off from the rest of a sentence by commas.

See essential clauses, nonessential clauses in the main section of the AP Stylebook.

WITH NONESSENTIAL PHRASES: A nonessential phrase must be set off by commas. An essential phrase must not be set off from the rest of a sentence by commas.

See essential phrases, nonessential phrases in the main section of the AP Stylebook.

WITH INTRODUCTORY CLAUSES AND PHRASES: A comma is used to separate an introductory clause or phrase from the main clause: When he had tired of the mad pace of New York, he moved to Dubuque.

The comma may be omitted after short introductory phrases if no ambiguity would result: During the night he heard many noises.

But use the comma if its omission would slow comprehension: On the street below, the curious gathered.

WITH CONJUNCTIONS: When a conjunction such as and, but or for links two clauses that could stand alone as separate sentences, use a comma before the conjunction in most cases: She was glad she had looked, for a man was approaching the house.

As a rule of thumb, use a comma if the subject of each clause is expressly stated: We are visiting Washington, and we also plan a side trip to Williamsburg. We visited Washington, and our senator greeted us personally. But no comma when the subject of the two clauses is the same and is not repeated in the second: We are visiting Washington and plan to see the White House.

The comma may be dropped if two clauses with expressly stated subjects are short. In general, however, favor use of a comma unless a particular literary effect is desired or if it would distort the sense of a sentence.

INTRODUCING DIRECT QUOTES: Use a comma to introduce a complete one-sentence quotation within a paragraph: Wallace said, “She spent six months in Argentina and came back speaking English with a Spanish accent.” But use a colon to introduce quotations of more than one sentence. See colon.

Do not use a comma at the start of an indirect or partial quotation: He said the victory put him “firmly on the road to a first-ballot nomination.”

BEFORE ATTRIBUTION: Use a comma instead of a period at the end of a quote that is followed by attribution: “Write clearly and concisely,” she said.

Do not use a comma, however, if the quoted statement ends with a question mark or exclamation point: “Why should I?” he asked.

WITH HOMETOWNS AND AGES: Use a comma to set off an individual’s hometown when it is placed in apposition to a name (whether of is used or not): Mary Richards, Minneapolis, and Maude Findlay, Tuckahoe, New York, were there.

If an individual’s age is used, set it off by commas: Maude Findlay, 48, Tuckahoe, New York, was present.

WITH PARTY AFFILIATION, ACADEMIC DEGREES, RELIGIOUS AFFILIATIONS: See separate entries under each of these terms.

NAMES OF STATES AND NATIONS USED WITH CITY NAMES: His journey will take him from Dublin, Ireland, to Fargo, North Dakota, and back. The Selma, Alabama, group saw the governor.

Use parentheses, however, if a state name is inserted within a proper name: The Huntsville (Alabama) Times.

WITH YES AND NO: Yes, I will be there.

IN DIRECT ADDRESS: Mother, I will be home late. No, sir, I did not take it.

SEPARATING SIMILAR WORDS: Use a comma to separate duplicated words that otherwise would be confusing: What the problem is, is not clear.

IN LARGE FIGURES: Use a comma for most figures greater than 999. The major exceptions are street addresses (1234 Main St.), broadcast frequencies (1460 kilohertz), room numbers, serial numbers, telephone numbers, and years (1876). See separate entries under these headings.

PLACEMENT WITH QUOTES: Commas always go inside quotation marks.

WITH FULL DATES: When a phrase refers to a month, day and year, set off the year with a comma: Feb. 14, 2029, is the target date.

See semicolon.

dash (—)

References in this book to dashes denote what some styles call em dashes, long dashes or thick dashes. Because of news industry specifications for text transmission, AP has never used en dashes, also known as short dashes.

Follow these guidelines:

ABRUPT CHANGE: Use dashes to denote an abrupt change in thought in a sentence or an emphatic pause: Through her long reign, the queen and her family have adapted — usually skillfully — to the changing taste of the time. But avoid overuse of dashes to set off phrases when commas would suffice.

SERIES WITHIN A PHRASE: When a phrase that otherwise would be set off by commas contains a series of words that must be separated by commas, use dashes to set off the full phrase: He listed the qualities — intelligence, humor, conservatism, independence — that he liked in an executive.

ATTRIBUTION: Use a dash before an author’s or composer’s name at the end of a quotation: “Who steals my purse steals trash.” — Shakespeare.

IN DATELINES:

NEW YORK (AP) — The city is broke.

IN LISTS: See lists, bulleted lists.

WITH SPACES: Put a space on both sides of a dash in all uses except sports agate summaries.

ellipsis ( … )

In general, treat an ellipsis as a three-letter word, constructed with three periods and two spaces, as shown here.

Use an ellipsis to indicate the deletion of one or more words in condensing quotes, texts and documents. Be especially careful to avoid deletions that would distort the meaning.

An ellipsis also may be used to indicate a thought that the speaker or writer does not complete. Substitute a dash for this purpose, however, if the context uses ellipses to indicate that words actually spoken or written have been deleted.

Brief examples of how to use ellipses are provided after guidelines are given. More extensive examples, drawn from the speech in which President Richard Nixon announced his resignation, are in the sections below marked CONDENSATION EXAMPLE and QUOTATIONS.

PUNCTUATION GUIDELINES: If the words that precede an ellipsis constitute a grammatically complete sentence, either in the original or in the condensation, place a period at the end of the last word before the ellipsis. Follow it with a regular space and an ellipsis: I no longer have a strong enough political base. …

When the grammatical sense calls for a question mark, exclamation point, comma or colon, the sequence is word, punctuation mark, regular space, ellipsis: Will you come? …

When material is deleted at the end of one paragraph and at the beginning of the one that follows, place an ellipsis in both locations.

CONDENSATION EXAMPLE: Here is an example of how the spacing and punctuation guidelines would be applied in condensing President Richard Nixon’s resignation announcement:

Good evening. …

In all the decisions I have made in my public life, I have always tried to do what was best for the nation. …

… However, it has become evident to me that I no longer have a strong enough political base in … Congress.

… As long as there was … a base, I felt strongly that it was necessary to see the constitutional process through to its conclusion, that to do otherwise would be … a dangerously destabilizing precedent for the future.

QUOTATIONS: In writing a story, do not use ellipses at the beginning or end of direct quotes:

“It has become evident to me that I no longer have a strong enough political base,” Nixon said.

Not “… it has become evident to me that I no longer have a strong enough political base … ,” Nixon said.

SPECIAL EFFECTS: Ellipses also may be used to separate individual items within a paragraph of show business gossip or similar material. Use periods after items that are complete sentences.

exclamation point (!)

Follow these guidelines:

EMPHATIC EXPRESSIONS: Use the mark to express a high degree of surprise, incredulity or other strong emotion.

AVOID OVERUSE: Use a comma after mild interjections. End mildly exclamatory sentences with a period.

PLACEMENT WITH QUOTES: Place the mark inside quotation marks when it is part of the quoted material: “How wonderful!” he exclaimed. “Never!” she shouted.

Place the mark outside quotation marks when it is not part of the quoted material: I hated reading Spenser’s “Faerie Queene”!

MISCELLANEOUS: Do not use a comma or a period after the exclamation mark:

Wrong: “Halt!”, the corporal cried.

Right: “Halt!” the corporal cried.

hyphen (-)

Hyphens are joiners. Use them to avoid ambiguity or to form a single idea from two or more words.

Use of the hyphen is far from standardized. It can be a matter of taste, judgment and style sense. Think of hyphens as an aid to readers’ comprehension. If a hyphen makes the meaning clearer, use it. If it just adds clutter and distraction to the sentence, don’t use it.

If the sheer number of hyphens in a phrase, or confusion about how to use them, can daunt either the writer or the reader, try rephrasing. It’s a guide about how to use hyphens wisely, not it’s a how-to-use-hyphens-wisely guide.

These guidelines include changes in 2019, most notably removal of the requirement to hyphenate most compound modifiers after versions of the verb to be. In addition, see individual entries in this book and in Webster’s New World College Dictionary.

AVOID AMBIGUITY: Use a hyphen whenever ambiguity would result if it were omitted. See COMPOUND MODIFIERS section for details. Also: He recovered his health. He re-covered the leaky roof. The story is a re-creation. The park is for recreation.

COMPOUND MODIFIERS: When a compound modifier — two or more words that express a single concept — precedes a noun, you must decide: Hyphenate that modifier, or not? Often there’s not one absolute answer.

Do use a hyphen if it’s needed to make the meaning clear and avoid unintended meanings: small-business owner, better-qualified candidate, little-known song, French-speaking people, free-thinking philosophy, loose-knit group, low-income workers, never-published guidance, self-driving car, bases-loaded triple, one-way street (Think of the different possible meanings or confusion if the hyphen is removed in each of those examples.)

Other two-word terms, particularly those used as nouns, have evolved to be commonly recognized as, in effect, one word. No hyphen is needed when such terms are used as modifiers if the meaning is clear and unambiguous without the hyphen. Examples include third grade teacher, chocolate chip cookie, special effects embellishment, climate change report, public land management, real estate transaction, emergency room visit, cat food bowl, parking lot entrance, national security briefing, computer software maker.

Often, arguments for or against a hyphen could be made either way. Again, try to judge what is most clear and logical to the average reader. Also, consult Webster’s New World College Dictionary.

Hyphenate well- combinations before a noun, but not after: a well-known judge, but the judge is well known.

Generally, also use a hyphen in modifiers of three or more words: a know-it-all attitude, black-and-white photography, a sink-or-swim moment, a win-at-all-costs approach. Consider carefully, though, before deciding to use more than three modifiers.

No hyphen is needed to link a two-word phrase that includes the adverb very and all adverbs ending in -ly: a very good time, an easily remembered rule.

Many combinations that are hyphenated before a noun are not hyphenated when they occur after a noun: She works full time. She is well aware of the consequences. The children are soft spoken. The play is second rate. The calendar is up to date. (Guidance changed in 2019 to remove the rule that said to hyphenate following a form of the verb to be.)

But use a hyphen if confusion could otherwise result, especially with longer compound modifiers or those that are not as commonly used: The steel surface should be blast-cleaned. The technology is state-of-the-art. The test was multiple choice and fill-in-the-blank. He will work arm-in-arm with the director.

Also use hyphens to avoid nonsensical terms such as nonlife: Make it non-life-threatening, not nonlife-threatening. Often the better choice is to rephrase, even if it means using a few more words.

COMPOUND VERBS: Don’t use a hyphen in phrasal verbs (a verb combined with an adverb, a preposition or both). It’s back up the car, not back-up the car; set out the desserts, not set-out the desserts. In general, do hyphenate other compound verbs: She speed-walked her way to victory; he spoon-fed the baby.

COMPOUND NOUNS: Hyphenate compounds when needed to avoid confusion: merry-go-round, sister-in-law, hand-me-downs, so-and-so.

MODIFYING ONE-WORD COMPOUNDS: Words that are usually one-word compounds (automaker, bookstore) should be separated when a modifier is added: fast-car maker, not fast carmaker or fast-carmaker.

COMPOUND PROPER NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES: A change in 2019: Do not use a hyphen to designate dual heritage: African American, Italian American, Mexican American.

PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES: See prefixes and suffixes, and separate entries for the most frequently used prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes that generally require hyphens include self-, all-, ex-, half-. Suffixes that generally require hyphens include -free, -based, -elect.

AVOID DUPLICATED VOWELS, TRIPLED CONSONANTS: Examples: anti-intellectual, shell-like. But double-e combinations usually don’t get a hyphen: preempted, reelected. (Exception added in 2019, reflecting common usage.)

MULTIPLE COMPOUND MODIFIERS: If the phrase is easily recognized without hyphens, use a hyphen only to link last element: They hope to spark consumer interest in department store-based shopping. She said assistant vice president-managed courses should include real estate licensing-related materials. (Again, rephrasing may be a better option.)

SUSPENSIVE HYPHENATION: Use these forms to shorten a compound modifier or a noun phrase that shares a common word:

When the elements are joined by and or or, expressing more than one element: 10-, 15- or 20-minute intervals; 5- and 6-year-olds. But: The intervals are 10, 15 or 20 minutes; the children are 5 to 6 years old.

When the elements are joined by to or by, expressing a single element: a 10-to-15-year prison term; an 8-by-12-inch pan. But: The prison term is 10 to 15 years; the pan is 8 by 12 inches.

parentheses ( )

In general, use parentheses around logos, as shown in datelines (in the AP Stylebook), but otherwise be sparing with them.

Parentheses are jarring to the reader. Because they do not appear on some news service printers, there is also the danger that material inside them may be misinterpreted.

The temptation to use parentheses is a clue that a sentence is becoming contorted. Try to write it another way. If a sentence must contain incidental material, then commas or two dashes are frequently more effective. Use these alternatives whenever possible.

There are occasions, however, when parentheses are the only effective means of inserting necessary background or reference information. When they are necessary, follow these guidelines:

WITHIN QUOTATIONS: If parenthetical information inserted in a direct quotation is at all sensitive, place an editor’s note under a dash at the bottom of a story alerting copy desks to what was inserted.

PUNCTUATION: Place a period outside a closing parenthesis if the material inside is not a sentence (such as this fragment).

(An independent parenthetical sentence such as this one takes a period before the closing parenthesis.)

When a phrase placed in parentheses (this one is an example) might normally qualify as a complete sentence but is dependent on the surrounding material, do not capitalize the first word or end with a period.

INSERTIONS IN A PROPER NAME: Use parentheses if a state name or similar information is inserted within a proper name: The Huntsville (Alabama) Times. But use commas if no proper name is involved: The Selma, Alabama, group saw the governor.

NEVER USED: Do not use parentheses to denote a political figure’s party affiliation and jurisdiction. Instead, set them off with commas, as shown under party affiliation.

Do not use (cq) or similar notation to indicate that an unusual spelling or term is correct. Include the confirmation in an editor’s note at the top of a story.

periods (.)

Follow these guidelines:

END OF DECLARATIVE SENTENCE: The stylebook is finished.

END OF A MILDLY IMPERATIVE SENTENCE: Shut the door.

Use an exclamation point if greater emphasis is desired: Be careful!

END OF SOME RHETORICAL QUESTIONS: A period is preferable if a statement is more a suggestion than a question: Why don’t we go.

END OF AN INDIRECT QUESTION: He asked what the score was.

MANY ABBREVIATIONS: For guidelines, see abbreviations and acronyms. For the form of frequently used abbreviations, see the entry under the full name, abbreviation, acronym or term.

INITIALS: John F. Kennedy, T.S. Eliot (No space between T. and S., to prevent them from being placed on two lines in typesetting.)

Abbreviations using only the initials of a name do not take periods: JFK, LBJ.

ELLIPSIS: See ellipsis.

ENUMERATIONS: After numbers or letters in enumerating elements of a summary: 1. Wash the car. 2. Clean the basement. Or: A. Punctuate properly. B. Write simply.

PLACEMENT WITH QUOTATION MARKS: Periods always go inside quotation marks. See quotation marks.

SPACING: Use a single space after a period at the end of a sentence.

question mark (?)

Follow these guidelines:

END OF A DIRECT QUESTION: Who started the riot?

Did he ask who started the riot? (The sentence as a whole is a direct question despite the indirect question at the end.)

You started the riot? (A question in the form of a declarative statement.)

INTERPOLATED QUESTION: You told me – Did I hear you correctly? – that you started the riot.

MULTIPLE QUESTIONS: Use a single question mark at the end of the full sentence:

Did you hear him say, “What right have you to ask about the riot?”

Did he plan the riot, employ assistants, and give the signal to begin?

Or, to cause full stops and throw emphasis on each element, break into separate sentences: Did he plan the riot? Employ assistants? Give the signal to begin?

CAUTION: Do not use question marks to indicate the end of indirect questions:

He asked who started the riot. To ask why the riot started is unnecessary. I want to know what the cause of the riot was. How foolish it is to ask what caused the riot.

QUESTION-AND-ANSWER FORMAT: Do not use quotation marks. Paragraph each speaker’s words:

Q: Where did you keep it?

A: In a little tin box.

PLACEMENT WITH QUOTATION MARKS: Inside or outside, depending on the meaning:

Who wrote “Gone With the Wind”?

He asked, “How long will it take?”

MISCELLANEOUS: The question mark supersedes the comma that normally is used when supplying attribution for a quotation: “Who is there?” she asked.

quotation marks (” “)

The basic guidelines for open-quote marks (“) and close-quote marks (“):

FOR DIRECT QUOTATIONS: To surround the exact words of a speaker or writer when reported in a story:

“I have no intention of staying,” he replied.

“I do not object,” he said, “to the tenor of the report.”

Franklin said, “A penny saved is a penny earned.”

A speculator said the practice is “too conservative for inflationary times.”

RUNNING QUOTATIONS: If a full paragraph of quoted material is followed by a paragraph that continues the quotation, do not put close-quote marks at the end of the first paragraph. Do, however, put open-quote marks at the start of the second paragraph. Continue in this fashion for any succeeding paragraphs, using close-quote marks only at the end of the quoted material.

If a paragraph does not start with quotation marks but ends with a quotation that is continued in the next paragraph, do not use close-quote marks at the end of the introductory paragraph if the quoted material constitutes a full sentence. Use close-quote marks, however, if the quoted material does not constitute a full sentence. For example:

He said, “I am shocked and horrified by the slaying.

“I am so horrified, in fact, that I will ask for the death penalty.”

But: He said he was “shocked and horrified by the slaying.”

“I am so horrified, in fact, that I will ask for the death penalty,” he said.

DIALOGUE OR CONVERSATION: Each person’s words, no matter how brief, are placed in a separate paragraph, with quotation marks at the beginning and the end of each person’s speech:

“Will you go?”

“Yes.”

“When?”

“Thursday.”

NOT IN Q-and-A: Quotation marks are not required in formats that identify questions and answers by Q: and A:. See question mark for example.

NOT IN TEXTS: Quotation marks are not required in full texts, condensed texts or textual excerpts. See ellipsis.

COMPOSITION TITLES: See composition titles for guidelines on the use of quotation marks in book titles, movie titles, etc.

NICKNAMES: See pseudonyms, nicknames.

IRONY: Put quotation marks around a word or words used in an ironical sense: The “debate” turned into a free-for-all.

UNFAMILIAR TERMS: A word or words being introduced to readers may be placed in quotation marks on first reference:

Broadcast frequencies are measured in “kilohertz.”

Do not put subsequent references to kilohertz in quotation marks.

See foreign words in the AP Stylebook.

AVOID UNNECESSARY FRAGMENTS: Do not use quotation marks to report a few ordinary words that a speaker or writer has used:

Wrong: The senator said he would “go home to Michigan” if he lost the election.

Right: The senator said he would go home to Michigan if he lost the election.

PARTIAL QUOTES: When a partial quote is used, do not put quotation marks around words that the speaker could not have used.

Suppose the individual said, “I am horrified at your slovenly manners.”

Wrong: She said she “was horrified at their slovenly manners.”

Right: She said she was horrified at their “slovenly manners.”

Better when practical: Use the full quote.

QUOTES WITHIN QUOTES: Alternate between double quotation marks (“or”) and single marks (‘or’):

She said, “I quote from his letter, ‘I agree with Kipling that “the female of the species is more deadly than the male,” but the phenomenon is not an unchangeable law of nature,’ a remark he did not explain.”

Use three marks together if two quoted elements end at the same time: She said, “He told me, ‘I love you.'”

PLACEMENT WITH OTHER PUNCTUATION: Follow these long-established printers’ rules:

The period and the comma always go within the quotation marks.

The dash, the semicolon, the colon, the question mark and the exclamation point go within the quotation marks when they apply to the quoted matter only. They go outside when they apply to the whole sentence.

HEADLINES: Use single quote marks in headlines.

See comma.

semicolon (;)

In general, use the semicolon to indicate a greater separation of thought and information than a comma can convey but less than the separation that a period implies.

The basic guidelines:

TO CLARIFY A SERIES: Use semicolons to separate elements of a series when the items in the series are long or when individual segments contain material that also must be set off by commas:

He is survived by a son, John Smith, of Chicago; three daughters, Jane Smith, of Wichita, Kansas, Mary Smith, of Denver, and Susan, of Boston; and a sister, Martha, of Omaha, Nebraska.

Note that the semicolon is used before the final and in such a series.

See dash for a different type of connection that uses dashes to avoid multiple commas.

TO LINK INDEPENDENT CLAUSES: Use semicolon when a coordinating conjunction such as and, but or for is not present: The package was due last week; it arrived today.

If a coordinating conjunction is present, use a semicolon before it only if extensive punctuation also is required in one or more of the individual clauses: They pulled their boats from the water, sandbagged the retaining walls, and boarded up the windows; but even with these precautions, the island was hard-hit by the hurricane.

Unless a particular literary effect is desired, however, the better approach in these circumstances is to break the independent clauses into separate sentences.

PLACEMENT WITH QUOTES: Place semicolons outside quotation marks.

ranges

The form: $12 million to $14 million. Not: $12 to $14 million. Also: a pay increase of 12%-15% or 12% to 15% or between 12% and 15%. For full calendar years, hyphenated 2015-16 is acceptable.

The following is from the AP Stylebook Ask the Editor section.

The spider lays 45 to 85 eggs, which hatch in seven to 11 days.

seasons

Lowercase spring, summer, fall, winter and derivatives such as springtime unless part of a formal name: Dartmouth Winter Carnival, Winter Olympics, Summer Olympics.

state names

spell out state names

The names of the 50 U.S. states should be spelled out when used in the body of a story, whether standing alone or in conjunction with a city, town, village or military base. No state name is necessary if it is the same as the dateline. This also applies to newspapers cited in a story. For example, a story datelined Providence, R.I., would reference the Providence Journal, not the Providence (Rhode Island) Journal.

eight states not abbreviated

The names of eight states are never abbreviated in datelines or text: Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Ohio, Texas and Utah.

Memory aid: Spell out the names of the two states that are not part of the contiguous United States and of the continental states that are five letters or fewer.

state names in the body of stories

Except for cities that stand alone in datelines, use the state name in textual material when the city or town is not in the same state as the dateline, or where necessary to avoid confusion: Springfield, Massachusetts, or Springfield, Illinois. Provide a state identification for the city if the story has no dateline, or if the city is not in the same state as the dateline. However, cities that stand alone in datelines may be used alone in stories that have no dateline if no confusion would result.

state abbreviations required

Use the state abbreviations listed at the end of this section:

• In conjunction with the name of a city, town, village or military base in most datelines.
• In lists, agate, tabular material, nonpublishable editor’s notes and credit lines.
• In short-form listings of party affiliation: D-Ala., R-Mont.

punctuation of state names

Place one comma between the city and the state name, and another comma after the state name, unless ending a sentence or indicating a dateline: He was traveling from Nashville, Tennessee, to Austin, Texas, en route to his home in Albuquerque, New Mexico.She said Cook County, Illinois, was Mayor Daley’s stronghold.

state names in headlines

Avoid using state abbreviations in headlines whenever possible.

state names in headings

The following is a UAMS-specific style.

Avoid using state abbreviations in headings whenever possible.

miscellaneous state names guidelines

Use New York state when necessary to distinguish the state from New York City.

Use state of Washington or Washington state within the body of a page when it’s necessary to differentiate the state name from the U.S. capital, Washington. It’s written Washington, D.C., with the added abbreviation only if the city might be confused with the state.

Postal Service abbreviations for state names

Use the two-letter Postal Service abbreviations only with full addresses, including ZIP code.

list of state name abbreviations

Following are the state abbreviations, which also appear in the entries for each state.

Full Name of State or District	AP Style Abbreviation	Postal Code Abbreviation
Alabama	Ala.	AL
Alaska	Alaska	AK
Arizona	Ariz.	AZ
Arkansas	Ark.	AR
California	Calif.	CA
Colorado	Colo.	CO
Connecticut	Conn.	CT
Delaware	Del.	DE
District of Columbia	District of Columbia	DC
Florida	Fla.	FL
Georgia	Ga.	ga
Hawaii	Hawaii	HI
Idaho	Idaho	ID
Illinois	Ill.	IL
Indiana	Ind.	IN
Iowa	Iowa	IA
Kansas	Kan.	KS
Kentucky	Ky.	KY
Louisiana	La.	LA
Maryland	Md.	MD
Maine	Maine	ME
Massachusetts	Mass.	MA
Michigan	Mich.	MI
Minnesota	Minn.	MN
Mississippi	Miss.	MS
Missouri	Mo.	MO
Montana	Mont.	MT
Nebraska	Neb.	NE
Nevada	Nev.	NV
New Hampshire	N.H.	NH
New Jersey	N.J.	NJ
New Mexico	N.M.	NM
New York	N.Y.	NY
North Carolina	N.C.	NC
North Dakota	N.D.	ND
Ohio	Ohio	OH
Oklahoma	Okla.	OK
Oregon	Ore.	OR
Pennsylvania	Pa.	PA
Rhode Island	R.I.	RI
South Carolina	S.C.	SC
South Dakota	S.D.	SD
Tennessee	Tenn.	TN
Texas	Texas	TX
Utah	Utah	UT
Vermont	Vt.	VT
Virginia	Va.	VA
Washington	Wash.	WA
West Virginia	W.Va.	WV
Wisconsin	Wis.	WI
Wyoming	Wyo.	WY

sub-

The rules in prefixes apply, but in general, no hyphen.

Words without a hyphen in New World College Dictionary:

• subacid
• subacute
• subadult
• subagent
• subalpine
• subalternate
• subantarctic
• subaquatic
• subaqueous
• subarachnoid
• subarctic
• subarid
• subassembly
• subatom
• subatomic
• subaudition
• subauricular
• subbase
• subbasement
• subbranch
• subcaliber
• subcelestial
• subcellar
• subcenter
• subcentral
• subchaser
• subchloride
• subclass
• subclavian
• subclimax
• subclinical
• subcommittee
• subcompact
• subcomponent
• subconscious
• subcontinent
• subcontract
• subcontractor
• subcontrary
• subcortex
• subcortical
• subcostal
• subcritical
• subculture
• subcutaneous
• subnormal
• subdistrict
• subdivision
• subdominant
• subemployed
• subentry
• subfamily
• subfloor
• subfreezing
• subgenus
• subglacial
• subgrade
• subgroup
• subhead
• subhuman
• subincision
• subindex
• subirrigate
• subjoin
• subkingdom
• sublease
• sublethal
• sublieutenant
• sublunary
• submachine gun
• submarginal
• submaxilla
• submaxillary
• submediant
• submicron
• submicroscopic
• subminiature
• subminiaturize
• submontane
• submultiple
• subnormal
• subnuclear
• suboceanic
• suboptimal
• suborbital
• suborder
• suboscine
• suboxide
• subphylum
• subplot
• subpopulation
• subprime
• subprincipal
• subprofessional
• subregion
• subroutine
• subsample
• subscript
• subsection
• subsequence
• subset
• subsoil
• subsolar
• subsonic
• subspace
• subspecies
• substage
• substandard
• substation
• substellar
• substratosphere
• substratum
• subsurface
• subsystem
• subtangent
• subteen
• subtemperate
• subtend
• subtonic
• subtopic
• subtotal
• subtreasury
• subtropical
• subumbrella

Words that use a hyphen in New World College Dictionary:

• sub-editor
• sub-Saharan

Some non-hyphenated coinage, not listed in the dictionary:

• subzero

suffixes

See separate listing for commonly used suffixes.

Follow Webster’s New World Dictionary (pages 1443-1448 in the fifth edition) for words not in the AP Stylebook.

If a word combination is not listed in Webster’s New World, use two words for the verb form; hyphenate any noun or adjective forms.

telephone numbers

Use figures. The form: 501-686-7000. Use hyphens, not periods.

The form for toll-free numbers: 800-111-1000.

If extension numbers are needed, use a comma to separate the main number from the extension: 501-686-7000, ext. 2.

The names of the 50 U.S. states should be spelled out in your page, whether standing alone or in conjunction with a city, town, village or military base.

titles

In general, confine capitalization to formal titles used directly before an individual’s name.

See academic titles and composition titles.

lowercase titles

Lowercase and spell out titles when they are not used with an individual’s name: The president issued a statement. The pope gave his blessing.

Lowercase and spell out titles in constructions that set them off from a name by commas: The vice president, Kamala Harris, was elected in 2020. Pope Francis, the current pope, was born in Argentina.

formal titles

Capitalize formal titles when they are used immediately before one or more names: Pope Francis, President Joe Biden, Vice Presidents Yukari Nakamura and Vanessa Smith.

A formal title generally is one that denotes a scope of authority, professional activity or academic activity: Sen. Catherine Cortez Masto, Dr. Benjamin Spock, retired Gen. Colin Powell.

Other titles serve primarily as occupational descriptions: astronaut Sally Ride, poet Maya Angelou.

A final determination on whether a title is formal or occupational depends on the practice of the governmental or private organization that confers it. If there is doubt about the status of a title and the practice of the organization cannot be determined, use a construction that sets the name or the title off with commas.

abbreviated titles

The following formal titles are capitalized and abbreviated as shown when used before a name both inside and outside quotations: Dr., Gov., Lt. Gov., Rep., Sen. and certain military ranks listed in military titles.

All other formal titles are spelled out in all uses.

titles of government officials

In stories with U.S. datelines, do not include U.S. before the titles of secretary of state or other government officials, except where necessary for clarity.

In stories with international datelines, include U.S. before the titles.

royal titles

Capitalize king, queen, etc., when used directly before a name.

titles of nobility

Capitalize a full title when it serves as the alternate name for an individual.

past and future titles

A formal title that an individual formerly held, is about to hold or holds temporarily is capitalized if used before the person’s name. But do not capitalize the qualifying word: former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, deposed King Constantine, Attorney General-designate Griffin B. Bell, acting Mayor Peter Barry.

long titles

Separate a long title from a name by a construction that requires a comma: Omar Robinson, the undersecretary for economic affairs, spoke. Or: The undersecretary for economic affairs, Omar Robinson, spoke.

unique titles

If a title applies only to one person in an organization, insert the word the in a construction that uses commas: Adama Bimou, the deputy vice president, spoke.

legislative titles

first-reference form for legislative titles

Use Rep., Reps., Sen. and Sens. as formal titles before one or more names. Spell out and lowercase representative and senator in other uses.

Spell out other legislative titles in all uses. Capitalize formal titles such as chair, city councilor, delegate, etc., when they are used before a name. Lowercase in other uses.

Add U.S. or state before a title only if necessary to avoid confusion: Former state Attorney General Dan Sullivan, a Republican, defeated U.S. Sen. Mark Begich, a Democrat from Alaska, during the 2014 general election.

In stories with international datelines, include U.S. before legislative titles.

first-reference practice for legislative titles

The use of a title such as Rep. or Sen. in first reference is normal in most stories. It is not mandatory, however, provided an individual’s title is given later in the story.

Deletion of the title on first reference is frequently appropriate, for example, when an individual has become well known: Barack Obama declared Americans were ready to “cast aside cynicism” as he looked for a convincing win in the Democratic contest. The Illinois senator was leading in the polls.

second reference for legislative titles

Do not use legislative titles before a name on second reference unless they are part of a direct quotation.

congressman, congresswoman

Rep. and U.S. Rep. are the preferred first-reference forms when a formal title is used before the name of a U.S. House member.

In stand-alone references, the terms U.S. House representative, representative, member of Congress are preferred. Congressman and congresswoman are acceptable. Do not use congressperson. Congressman and congresswoman should appear as capitalized formal titles before a name only in direct quotation.

organizational titles for legislative titles

Capitalize titles for formal, organizational offices within a legislative body when they are used before a name: House Speaker Paul Ryan, Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell, House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi, House Minority Whip Steny Hoyer, President Pro Tem Orrin Hatch, Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman Charles Grassley.

military titles

Capitalize a military rank when used as a formal title before an individual’s name.

See the lists that follow to determine whether the title should be spelled out or abbreviated in regular text.

On first reference, use the appropriate title before the full name of a member of the military.

In subsequent references, do not continue using the title before a name. Use only the last name.

Spell out and lowercase a title when it is substituted for a name: Gen. John Jones is the top U.S. commander in Afghanistan. The general endorsed the idea.

In some cases, it may be necessary to explain the significance of a title: Army Sgt. Maj. John Jones described the attack. Jones, who holds the Army’s highest rank for enlistees, said it was unprovoked.

In addition to the ranks listed on the next page, each service has ratings such as machinist, radarman, torpedoman, etc., that are job descriptions. Do not use any of these designations as a title on first reference. If one is used before a name in a subsequent reference, do not capitalize or abbreviate it.

abbreviations for military titles

The abbreviations, with the highest ranks listed first:

Army — commissioned officers

Rank	Usage before a name
general	Gen.
lieutenant general	Lt. Gen.
major general	Maj. Gen.
brigadier general	Brig. Gen.
colonel	Col.
lieutenant colonel	Lt. Col.
major	Maj.
captain	Capt.
first lieutenant	1st Lt.
second lieutenant	2nd Lt.

Army — warrant officers

Rank	Usage before a name
chief warrant officer five (CW5)	Chief Warrant Officer 5
chief warrant officer four (CW4)	Chief Warrant Officer 4
chief warrant officer three (CW3)	Chief Warrant Officer 3
chief warrant officer two (CW2)	Chief Warrant Officer 2
warrant officer (W01)	Warrant Officer

Army — enlisted personnel

Rank	Usage before a name
sergeant major of the Army	Sgt. Maj. of the Army
command sergeant major	Command Sgt. Maj.
sergeant major	Sgt. Maj.
first sergeant	1st Sgt.
master sergeant	Master Sgt.
sergeant first class	Sgt. 1st Class
staff sergeant	Staff Sgt.
sergeant	Sgt.
corporal	Cpl.
specialist	Spc.
private first class	Pfc.
private	Pvt.

Navy, Coast Guard — commissioned officers

Rank	Usage before a name
admiral	Adm.
vice admiral	Vice Adm.
rear admiral upper half	Rear Adm.
rear admiral lower half	Rear Adm.
captain	Capt.
commander	Cmdr.
lieutenant commander	Lt. Cmdr.
lieutenant	Lt.
lieutenant junior grade	Lt. j.g.
ensign	Ensign

Navy, Coast Guard — warrant officers

Rank	Usage before a name
chief warrant officer	Chief Warrant Officer

Navy, Coast Guard — enlisted personnel

Rank	Usage before a name
master chief petty officer of the Navy	Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy
master chief petty officer	Master Chief Petty Officer
senior chief petty officer	Senior Chief Petty Officer
chief petty officer	Chief Petty Officer
petty officer first class	Petty Officer 1st Class
petty officer second class	Petty Officer 2nd Class
petty officer third class	Petty Officer 3rd Class
seaman	Seaman
seaman apprentice	Seaman Apprentice
seaman recruit	Seaman Recruit

Marine Corps — commissioned officers

Ranks and abbreviations for commissioned officers are the same as those in the Army. Warrant officer ratings follow the same system used in the Navy. There are no specialist ratings.

Marine Corps — others

Rank	Usage before a name
sergeant major of the Marine Corps	Sgt. Maj. of the Marine Corps
sergeant major	Sgt. Maj.
master gunnery sergeant	Master Gunnery Sgt.
first sergeant	1st Sgt.
master sergeant	Master Sgt.
gunnery sergeant	Gunnery Sgt.
staff sergeant	Staff Sgt.
sergeant	Sgt.
corporal	Cpl.
lance corporal	Lance Cpl.
private first class	Pfc.
private	Pvt.

Air Force — commissioned officers

Ranks and abbreviations for commissioned officers are the same as those in the Army.

Air Force — enlisted designations

Rank	Usage before a name
chief master sergeant of the Air Force	Chief Master Sgt. of the Air Force
chief master sergeant	Chief Master Sgt.
senior master sergeant	Senior Master Sgt.
master sergeant	Master Sgt.
technical sergeant	Tech. Sgt.
staff sergeant	Staff Sgt.
senior airman	Senior Airman
airman first class	Airman 1st Class
airman	Airman
airman basic	Airman

plurals in military titles

Add s to the principal element in the title: Majs. John Jones and Robert Smith; Maj. Gens. John Jones and Robert Smith; Spcs. John Jones and Robert Smith.

military titles for retired officers

A military rank may be used in first reference before the name of an officer who has retired if it is relevant to a story. Do not, however, use the military abbreviation Ret.

Instead, use retired just as former would be used before the title of a civilian: They invited retired Army Gen. John Smith.

military-style titles for firefighters, police officers

Use the abbreviations listed here when a military-style title is used before the name of a firefighter or police officer outside a direct quotation. Add police or fire before the title if needed for clarity: police Sgt. William Smith, fire Capt. David Jones.

Spell out titles such as detective that are not used in the armed forces.

religious titles

The first reference to a clergyman or clergywoman normally should include a capitalized title before the individual’s name.

In many cases, the Rev. is the designation that applies before a name on first reference. Use the Rev. Dr. only if the individual has an earned doctoral degree (doctor of divinity degrees frequently are honorary) and reference to the degree is relevant.

On second reference to members of the clergy, use only a last name: the Rev. Billy Graham on first reference, Graham on second. If known only by a religious name, repeat the title: Pope John XXIII on first reference, John, the pope or the pontiff on second; Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI or Benedict XVI, the pope emeritus. Benedict alone on second reference. Metropolitan Herman on first reference, Metropolitan Herman or the metropolitan on second.

Detailed guidance on specific titles and descriptive words such as priest and minister is provided in the entries for major denominations. In general, however:

titles for cardinals, archbishops, bishops

The preferred form for first reference is to use Cardinal, Archbishop or Bishop before the individual’s name: Cardinal Daniel DiNardo, archbishop of Galveston-Houston. On second reference: DiNardo or the cardinal.

Substitute the Most Rev. if applicable and appropriate in the context: He spoke to the Most Rev. Jose Gomez, archbishop of Los Angeles. On second reference: Gomez or the archbishop.

Entries for individual denominations tell when the Most Rev., the Very Rev., etc., are applicable.

titles for ministers and priests

Use the Rev. before a name on first reference.

Substitute Monsignor before the name of a Roman Catholic priest who has received this honor.

Do not routinely use curate, father, pastor and similar words before an individual’s name. If they appear before a name in a quotation, capitalize them.

titles for rabbis

Use Rabbi before a name on first reference. On second reference, use only the last name.

titles for nuns

Always use Sister, or Mother if applicable, before a name: Sister Agnes Rita in all references if the nun uses only a religious name; Sister Mary Ann Walsh on first reference if she uses a surname. Walsh on subsequent references.

titles for religious officeholders

The preferred first-reference form for those who hold church office but are not ordained clergy in the usual sense is to use a construction that sets the title apart from the name by commas. Capitalize the formal title of an office, however, if it is used directly before an individual’s name.

additional guidance on titles

Many commonly used titles and occupational descriptions are listed separately in the AP Stylebook, together with guidelines on whether and/or when they are capitalized. In these entries, the phrases before a name or immediately before a name are used to specify that capitalization applies only when a title is not set off from a name by commas.

times

Use figures except for noon and midnight.

Use a.m. and p.m. — lowercase, with periods, separated from the figure with a space.

If it is an exact hour, do not include “:00” in your time.

Use a colon to separate hours from minutes: 11 a.m., 1 p.m., 3:30 p.m., 9-11 a.m., 9 a.m. to 5 p.m.

Avoid such redundancies as 10 a.m. this morning, 10 p.m. tonight or 10 p.m. Monday night. Use 10 a.m. or 10 p.m. Monday, etc., as required by the norms in time element.

The construction 4 o’clock is acceptable, but time listings with a.m. or p.m. are preferred.

See midnight; noon; numerals and time zones.

midnight

Avoid using the term if it would create ambiguity about what day something is taking place, since some users’ understandings may vary. Instead: 11:59 p.m. Thursday or 12:01 a.m. Friday.

noon

Do not put a 12 in front of it.

time of day

The exact time of day that an event has happened or will happen is not necessary in most stories. Follow these guidelines to determine when it should be included and in what form:

specify the time

Specify the time whenever it gives the reader a better picture of the scene: Did the earthquake occur when people were likely to be home asleep or at work? A clock reading for the time in the datelined community is acceptable although pre-dawn hours or rush hour often is more illustrative.

Specify the time whenever the time is critical to the story: When will the rocket be launched? When will a major political address be broadcast? What is the deadline for meeting a demand?

deciding on clock time

When giving a clock reading, use the time in the datelined community.

If the story has no dateline, use the clock time in force where the event happened or will take place.

The only exception is a nationwide story or tabular listing that involves television or radio programs. Always use Eastern time, followed by EDT or EST, and specify whether the program will be broadcast simultaneously nationwide or whether times will vary because of separate transmissions for different time zones. If practical, specify those times in a separate paragraph.

zone abbreviations

Use EST, CDT, PST, etc., after a clock time only if:

• The story involves travel or other activities, such as the closing hour for polling places or the time of a televised speech, likely to affect people or developments in more than one time zone.
• The item involves television or radio programs. (See above.)
• The item has no dateline.
• The item is an advisory to editors.

convert to Eastern time?

Do not convert clock times from other time zones in the continental United States to Eastern time. If there is high interest in the precise time, add CDT, PST, etc., to the local reading to help readers determine their equivalent local time.

If the time is critical in a story from outside the continental United States, provide a conversion to Eastern time using this form:

The kidnappers set a 9 a.m. (3 a.m. EDT) deadline.

See time zones for additional guidance on forms.

time zones

Capitalize the full name of the time in force within a particular zone: Eastern Standard Time, Eastern Daylight Time, Central Standard Time, etc.

Lowercase all but the region in short forms: the Eastern time zone, Eastern time, Mountain time, etc.

Spell out time zone in references not accompanied by a clock reading: Chicago is in the Central time zone.

The abbreviations EST, CDT, etc., are acceptable on first reference for zones used within the continental United States, Canada and Mexico only if the abbreviation is linked with a clock reading: noon EST, 9 a.m. PST. (Do not set off the abbreviations with commas.)

Spell out all references to time zones not used within the contiguous United States: When it is noon EDT, it is 1 p.m. Atlantic Standard Time and 8 a.m. Alaska Standard Time.

One exception to the spelled-out form: Greenwich Mean Time may be abbreviated as GMT on second reference if used with a clock reading.

United States

Use periods in the abbreviation, U.S. within texts. In headlines, it’s US (no periods).

U.S. Cabinet departments

The following are the U.S. Cabinet departments:

• Department of Agriculture (USDA acceptable on second reference); Department of Commerce
• Department of Defense (DOD or Pentagon acceptable on second reference)
• Department of Education
• Department of Energy (DOE acceptable on second reference)
• Department of Health and Human Services (HHS acceptable on second reference)
• Department of Homeland Security (DHS acceptable on second reference)
• Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD acceptable on second reference)
• Department of the Interior
• Department of Justice (DOJ acceptable on second reference)
• Department of Labor
• Department of State
• Department of Transportation (DOT acceptable on second reference)
• Department of the Treasury
• Department of Veterans Affairs (VA acceptable on second reference)

It is preferable to list the subject first in stories, such as the Agriculture Department and Commerce Department. Exceptions are Department of Health and Human Services, Department of Homeland Security, Department of Housing and Urban Development and Department of Veterans Affairs.

Avoid acronyms when possible. A phrase such as the department is preferable on second reference because it is more readable and avoids alphabet soup.

Lowercase department in plural uses, but capitalize the proper name element: the departments of Labor and Justice.

A shorthand reference to the proper name element also is capitalized: Kissinger said, “State and Justice must resolve their differences.” But: Henry Kissinger, the secretary of state.

Lowercase the department whenever it stands alone.

Do not abbreviate department in any usage.

TITLES: In stories with U.S. datelines, do not include U.S. before the titles of Secretary of State or other government officials, except where necessary for clarity. Examples: Secretary of State John Kerry, Attorney General Eric Holder.

In stories with international datelines, include U.S. before the titles: U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry, U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder. Exceptions: President Joe Biden, Vice President Kamala Harris.

See academic departments.